\(\newcommand{\footnotename}{footnote}\)
\(\def \LWRfootnote {1}\)
\(\newcommand {\footnote }[2][\LWRfootnote ]{{}^{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\footnotemark }[1][\LWRfootnote ]{{}^{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand \ensuremath [1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRframebox }[2][]{\fbox {#2}} \newcommand {\framebox }[1][]{\LWRframebox } \)
\(\newcommand {\setlength }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\addtolength }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\setcounter }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\addtocounter }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\cline }[1]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\directlua }[1]{\text {(directlua)}}\)
\(\newcommand {\luatexdirectlua }[1]{\text {(directlua)}}\)
\(\newcommand {\protect }{}\)
\(\def \LWRabsorbnumber #1 {}\)
\(\def \LWRabsorbquotenumber "#1 {}\)
\(\def \mathchar {\ifnextchar "\LWRabsorbquotenumber \LWRabsorbnumber }\)
\(\def \mathcode #1={\mathchar }\)
\(\let \delcode \mathcode \)
\(\let \delimiter \mathchar \)
\(\let \LWRref \ref \)
\(\renewcommand {\ref }{\ifstar \LWRref \LWRref }\)
\(\newcommand {\intertext }[1]{\text {#1}\notag \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathllap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathrlap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathclap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathmbox }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\clap }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmathmakebox }[2][]{#2}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathmakebox }[1][]{\LWRmathmakebox }\)
\(\newcommand {\cramped }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedllap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedrlap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedclap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newenvironment {crampedsubarray}[1]{}{}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedsubstack }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\smashoperator }[2][]{#2\limits }\)
\(\newcommand {\adjustlimits }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\SwapAboveDisplaySkip }{}\)
\(\require {extpfeil}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftrightarrow {10,10}{0x2194}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xLeftarrow {10,10}{0x21d0}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xhookleftarrow {10,10}{0x21a9}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xmapsto {10,10}{0x21a6}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xRightarrow {10,10}{0x21d2}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xLeftrightarrow {10,10}{0x21d4}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xhookrightarrow {10,10}{0x21aa}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightharpoondown {10,10}{0x21c1}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftharpoondown {10,10}{0x21bd}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightleftharpoons {10,10}{0x21cc}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightharpoonup {10,10}{0x21c0}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftharpoonup {10,10}{0x21bc}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftrightharpoons {10,10}{0x21cb}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRdounderbracket }[3]{\underset {#3}{\underline {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRunderbracket }[2][]{\LWRdounderbracket {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\underbracket }[1][]{\LWRunderbracket }\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRdooverbracket }[3]{\overset {#3}{\overline {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRoverbracket }[2][]{\LWRdooverbracket {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\overbracket }[1][]{\LWRoverbracket }\)
\(\newcommand {\LATEXunderbrace }[1]{\underbrace {#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LATEXoverbrace }[1]{\overbrace {#1}}\)
\(\newenvironment {matrix*}[1][]{\begin {matrix}}{\end {matrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {pmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {smallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {matrix}}{\end {matrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {psmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {psmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmultlined }[1][]{\begin {multline*}}\)
\(\newenvironment {multlined}[1][]{\LWRmultlined }{\end {multline*}}\)
\(\let \LWRorigshoveleft \shoveleft \)
\(\renewcommand {\shoveleft }[1][]{\LWRorigshoveleft }\)
\(\let \LWRorigshoveright \shoveright \)
\(\renewcommand {\shoveright }[1][]{\LWRorigshoveright }\)
\(\newenvironment {dcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {dcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {drcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {drcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {cases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newcommand {\MoveEqLeft }[1][]{}\)
\(\def \LWRAboxed #1!|!{\fbox {\(#1\)}&\fbox {\(#2\)}} \newcommand {\Aboxed }[1]{\LWRAboxed #1&&!|!} \)
\( \newcommand {\LWRABLines }[1][\Updownarrow ]{#1 \notag \\}\newcommand {\ArrowBetweenLines }{\ifstar \LWRABLines \LWRABLines } \)
\(\newcommand {\shortintertext }[1]{\text {#1}\notag \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\vdotswithin }[1]{\hspace {.5em}\vdots }\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRshortvdotswithinstar }[1]{\vdots \hspace {.5em} & \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRshortvdotswithinnostar }[1]{& \hspace {.5em}\vdots \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\shortvdotswithin }{\ifstar \LWRshortvdotswithinstar \LWRshortvdotswithinnostar }\)
\(\newcommand {\MTFlushSpaceAbove }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\MTFlushSpaceBelow }{\\}\)
\(\newcommand \lparen {(}\)
\(\newcommand \rparen {)}\)
\(\newcommand {\ordinarycolon }{:}\)
\(\newcommand {\vcentcolon }{\mathrel {\mathop \ordinarycolon }}\)
\(\newcommand \dblcolon {\vcentcolon \vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \coloneqq {\vcentcolon =}\)
\(\newcommand \Coloneqq {\dblcolon =}\)
\(\newcommand \coloneq {\vcentcolon {-}}\)
\(\newcommand \Coloneq {\dblcolon {-}}\)
\(\newcommand \eqqcolon {=\vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \Eqqcolon {=\dblcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \eqcolon {\mathrel {-}\vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \Eqcolon {\mathrel {-}\dblcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \colonapprox {\vcentcolon \approx }\)
\(\newcommand \Colonapprox {\dblcolon \approx }\)
\(\newcommand \colonsim {\vcentcolon \sim }\)
\(\newcommand \Colonsim {\dblcolon \sim }\)
\(\newcommand {\nuparrow }{\mathrel {\cancel {\uparrow }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ndownarrow }{\mathrel {\cancel {\downarrow }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\bigtimes }{\mathop {\Large \times }\limits }\)
\(\newcommand {\prescript }[3]{{}^{#1}_{#2}#3}\)
\(\newenvironment {lgathered}{\begin {gathered}}{\end {gathered}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rgathered}{\begin {gathered}}{\end {gathered}}\)
\(\newcommand {\splitfrac }[2]{{}^{#1}_{#2}}\)
\(\let \splitdfrac \splitfrac \)
\(\newcommand {\LWRoverlaysymbols }[2]{\mathord {\smash {\mathop {#2\strut }\limits ^{\smash {\lower 3ex{#1}}}}\strut }}\)
\(\newcommand{\alphaup}{\unicode{x03B1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\betaup}{\unicode{x03B2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\gammaup}{\unicode{x03B3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\digammaup}{\unicode{x03DD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\deltaup}{\unicode{x03B4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\epsilonup}{\unicode{x03F5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varepsilonup}{\unicode{x03B5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\zetaup}{\unicode{x03B6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\etaup}{\unicode{x03B7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\thetaup}{\unicode{x03B8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varthetaup}{\unicode{x03D1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\iotaup}{\unicode{x03B9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\kappaup}{\unicode{x03BA}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varkappaup}{\unicode{x03F0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\lambdaup}{\unicode{x03BB}}\)
\(\newcommand{\muup}{\unicode{x03BC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\nuup}{\unicode{x03BD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\xiup}{\unicode{x03BE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omicronup}{\unicode{x03BF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\piup}{\unicode{x03C0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varpiup}{\unicode{x03D6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\rhoup}{\unicode{x03C1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varrhoup}{\unicode{x03F1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\sigmaup}{\unicode{x03C3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varsigmaup}{\unicode{x03C2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\tauup}{\unicode{x03C4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\upsilonup}{\unicode{x03C5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\phiup}{\unicode{x03D5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varphiup}{\unicode{x03C6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\chiup}{\unicode{x03C7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\psiup}{\unicode{x03C8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omegaup}{\unicode{x03C9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Alphaup}{\unicode{x0391}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Betaup}{\unicode{x0392}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Gammaup}{\unicode{x0393}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Digammaup}{\unicode{x03DC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Deltaup}{\unicode{x0394}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Epsilonup}{\unicode{x0395}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Zetaup}{\unicode{x0396}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Etaup}{\unicode{x0397}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Thetaup}{\unicode{x0398}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varthetaup}{\unicode{x03F4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Iotaup}{\unicode{x0399}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Kappaup}{\unicode{x039A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Lambdaup}{\unicode{x039B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Muup}{\unicode{x039C}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Nuup}{\unicode{x039D}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Xiup}{\unicode{x039E}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omicronup}{\unicode{x039F}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Piup}{\unicode{x03A0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varpiup}{\unicode{x03D6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Rhoup}{\unicode{x03A1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Sigmaup}{\unicode{x03A3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Tauup}{\unicode{x03A4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Upsilonup}{\unicode{x03A5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Phiup}{\unicode{x03A6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Chiup}{\unicode{x03A7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Psiup}{\unicode{x03A8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omegaup}{\unicode{x03A9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\alphait}{\unicode{x1D6FC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\betait}{\unicode{x1D6FD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\gammait}{\unicode{x1D6FE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\digammait}{\mathit{\unicode{x03DD}}}\)
\(\newcommand{\deltait}{\unicode{x1D6FF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\epsilonit}{\unicode{x1D716}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varepsilonit}{\unicode{x1D700}}\)
\(\newcommand{\zetait}{\unicode{x1D701}}\)
\(\newcommand{\etait}{\unicode{x1D702}}\)
\(\newcommand{\thetait}{\unicode{x1D703}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varthetait}{\unicode{x1D717}}\)
\(\newcommand{\iotait}{\unicode{x1D704}}\)
\(\newcommand{\kappait}{\unicode{x1D705}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varkappait}{\unicode{x1D718}}\)
\(\newcommand{\lambdait}{\unicode{x1D706}}\)
\(\newcommand{\muit}{\unicode{x1D707}}\)
\(\newcommand{\nuit}{\unicode{x1D708}}\)
\(\newcommand{\xiit}{\unicode{x1D709}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omicronit}{\unicode{x1D70A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\piit}{\unicode{x1D70B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varpiit}{\unicode{x1D71B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\rhoit}{\unicode{x1D70C}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varrhoit}{\unicode{x1D71A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\sigmait}{\unicode{x1D70E}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varsigmait}{\unicode{x1D70D}}\)
\(\newcommand{\tauit}{\unicode{x1D70F}}\)
\(\newcommand{\upsilonit}{\unicode{x1D710}}\)
\(\newcommand{\phiit}{\unicode{x1D719}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varphiit}{\unicode{x1D711}}\)
\(\newcommand{\chiit}{\unicode{x1D712}}\)
\(\newcommand{\psiit}{\unicode{x1D713}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omegait}{\unicode{x1D714}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Alphait}{\unicode{x1D6E2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Betait}{\unicode{x1D6E3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Gammait}{\unicode{x1D6E4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Digammait}{\mathit{\unicode{x03DC}}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Deltait}{\unicode{x1D6E5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Epsilonit}{\unicode{x1D6E6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Zetait}{\unicode{x1D6E7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Etait}{\unicode{x1D6E8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Thetait}{\unicode{x1D6E9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varthetait}{\unicode{x1D6F3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Iotait}{\unicode{x1D6EA}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Kappait}{\unicode{x1D6EB}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Lambdait}{\unicode{x1D6EC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Muit}{\unicode{x1D6ED}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Nuit}{\unicode{x1D6EE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Xiit}{\unicode{x1D6EF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omicronit}{\unicode{x1D6F0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Piit}{\unicode{x1D6F1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Rhoit}{\unicode{x1D6F2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Sigmait}{\unicode{x1D6F4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Tauit}{\unicode{x1D6F5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Upsilonit}{\unicode{x1D6F6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Phiit}{\unicode{x1D6F7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Chiit}{\unicode{x1D6F8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Psiit}{\unicode{x1D6F9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omegait}{\unicode{x1D6FA}}\)
\(\let \digammaup \Digammaup \)
\(\renewcommand {\digammait }{\mathit {\digammaup }}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallin }{\unicode {x220A}}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallowns }{\unicode {x220D}}\)
\(\newcommand {\notsmallin }{\LWRoverlaysymbols {/}{\unicode {x220A}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\notsmallowns }{\LWRoverlaysymbols {/}{\unicode {x220D}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\rightangle }{\unicode {x221F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\intclockwise }{\unicode {x2231}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ointclockwise }{\unicode {x2232}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ointctrclockwise }{\unicode {x2233}}\)
\(\newcommand {\oiint }{\unicode {x222F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\oiiint }{\unicode {x2230}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ddag }{\unicode {x2021}}\)
\(\newcommand {\P }{\unicode {x00B6}}\)
\(\newcommand {\copyright }{\unicode {x00A9}}\)
\(\newcommand {\dag }{\unicode {x2020}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pounds }{\unicode {x00A3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\iddots }{\unicode {x22F0}}\)
\(\newcommand {\utimes }{\overline {\times }}\)
\(\newcommand {\dtimes }{\underline {\times }}\)
\(\newcommand {\udtimes }{\overline {\underline {\times }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\leftwave }{\left \{}\)
\(\newcommand {\rightwave }{\right \}}\)
\(\newcommand {\toprule }[1][]{\hline }\)
\(\let \midrule \toprule \)
\(\let \bottomrule \toprule \)
\(\newcommand {\cmidrule }[2][]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\morecmidrules }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\specialrule }[3]{\hline }\)
\(\newcommand {\addlinespace }[1][]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRsubmultirow }[2][]{#2}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmultirow }[2][]{\LWRsubmultirow }\)
\(\newcommand {\multirow }[2][]{\LWRmultirow }\)
\(\newcommand {\mrowcell }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\mcolrowcell }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\STneed }[1]{}\)
\( \newcommand {\multicolumn }[3]{#3}\)
\(\newcommand {\tothe }[1]{^{#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\raiseto }[2]{{#2}^{#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ang }[2][]{(\mathrm {#2})\degree }\)
\(\newcommand {\num }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\si }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRSI }[2][]{\mathrm {#1\LWRSInumber \,#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SI }[2][]{\def \LWRSInumber {#2}\LWRSI }\)
\(\newcommand {\numlist }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\numrange }[3][]{\mathrm {#2\,\unicode {x2013}\,#3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SIlist }[3][]{\mathrm {#2\,#3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SIrange }[4][]{\mathrm {#2\,#4\,\unicode {x2013}\,#3\,#4}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tablenum }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ampere }{\mathrm {A}}\)
\(\newcommand {\candela }{\mathrm {cd}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kelvin }{\mathrm {K}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kilogram }{\mathrm {kg}}\)
\(\newcommand {\metre }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mole }{\mathrm {mol}}\)
\(\newcommand {\second }{\mathrm {s}}\)
\(\newcommand {\becquerel }{\mathrm {Bq}}\)
\(\newcommand {\degreeCelsius }{\unicode {x2103}}\)
\(\newcommand {\coulomb }{\mathrm {C}}\)
\(\newcommand {\farad }{\mathrm {F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gray }{\mathrm {Gy}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hertz }{\mathrm {Hz}}\)
\(\newcommand {\henry }{\mathrm {H}}\)
\(\newcommand {\joule }{\mathrm {J}}\)
\(\newcommand {\katal }{\mathrm {kat}}\)
\(\newcommand {\lumen }{\mathrm {lm}}\)
\(\newcommand {\lux }{\mathrm {lx}}\)
\(\newcommand {\newton }{\mathrm {N}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ohm }{\mathrm {\Omega }}\)
\(\newcommand {\pascal }{\mathrm {Pa}}\)
\(\newcommand {\radian }{\mathrm {rad}}\)
\(\newcommand {\siemens }{\mathrm {S}}\)
\(\newcommand {\sievert }{\mathrm {Sv}}\)
\(\newcommand {\steradian }{\mathrm {sr}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tesla }{\mathrm {T}}\)
\(\newcommand {\volt }{\mathrm {V}}\)
\(\newcommand {\watt }{\mathrm {W}}\)
\(\newcommand {\weber }{\mathrm {Wb}}\)
\(\newcommand {\day }{\mathrm {d}}\)
\(\newcommand {\degree }{\mathrm {^\circ }}\)
\(\newcommand {\hectare }{\mathrm {ha}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hour }{\mathrm {h}}\)
\(\newcommand {\litre }{\mathrm {l}}\)
\(\newcommand {\liter }{\mathrm {L}}\)
\(\newcommand {\arcminute }{^\prime }\)
\(\newcommand {\minute }{\mathrm {min}}\)
\(\newcommand {\arcsecond }{^{\prime \prime }}\)
\(\newcommand {\tonne }{\mathrm {t}}\)
\(\newcommand {\astronomicalunit }{au}\)
\(\newcommand {\atomicmassunit }{u}\)
\(\newcommand {\bohr }{\mathit {a}_0}\)
\(\newcommand {\clight }{\mathit {c}_0}\)
\(\newcommand {\dalton }{\mathrm {D}_\mathrm {a}}\)
\(\newcommand {\electronmass }{\mathit {m}_{\mathrm {e}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\electronvolt }{\mathrm {eV}}\)
\(\newcommand {\elementarycharge }{\mathit {e}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hartree }{\mathit {E}_{\mathrm {h}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\planckbar }{\mathit {\unicode {x210F}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\angstrom }{\mathrm {\unicode {x212B}}}\)
\(\let \LWRorigbar \bar \)
\(\newcommand {\bar }{\mathrm {bar}}\)
\(\newcommand {\barn }{\mathrm {b}}\)
\(\newcommand {\bel }{\mathrm {B}}\)
\(\newcommand {\decibel }{\mathrm {dB}}\)
\(\newcommand {\knot }{\mathrm {kn}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mmHg }{\mathrm {mmHg}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nauticalmile }{\mathrm {M}}\)
\(\newcommand {\neper }{\mathrm {Np}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yocto }{\mathrm {y}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zepto }{\mathrm {z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\atto }{\mathrm {a}}\)
\(\newcommand {\femto }{\mathrm {f}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pico }{\mathrm {p}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nano }{\mathrm {n}}\)
\(\newcommand {\micro }{\mathrm {\unicode {x00B5}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\milli }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\centi }{\mathrm {c}}\)
\(\newcommand {\deci }{\mathrm {d}}\)
\(\newcommand {\deca }{\mathrm {da}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hecto }{\mathrm {h}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kilo }{\mathrm {k}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mega }{\mathrm {M}}\)
\(\newcommand {\giga }{\mathrm {G}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tera }{\mathrm {T}}\)
\(\newcommand {\peta }{\mathrm {P}}\)
\(\newcommand {\exa }{\mathrm {E}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zetta }{\mathrm {Z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yotta }{\mathrm {Y}}\)
\(\newcommand {\percent }{\mathrm {\%}}\)
\(\newcommand {\meter }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\metre }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gram }{\mathrm {g}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kg }{\kilo \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\of }[1]{_{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\squared }{^2}\)
\(\newcommand {\square }[1]{\mathrm {#1}^2}\)
\(\newcommand {\cubed }{^3}\)
\(\newcommand {\cubic }[1]{\mathrm {#1}^3}\)
\(\newcommand {\per }{/}\)
\(\newcommand {\celsius }{\unicode {x2103}}\)
\(\newcommand {\fg }{\femto \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\pg }{\pico \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\ng }{\nano \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\ug }{\micro \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\mg }{\milli \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\g }{\gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\kg }{\kilo \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\amu }{\mathrm {u}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nm }{\nano \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\um }{\micro \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\mm }{\milli \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\cm }{\centi \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\dm }{\deci \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\m }{\metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\km }{\kilo \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\as }{\atto \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\fs }{\femto \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ps }{\pico \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ns }{\nano \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\us }{\micro \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ms }{\milli \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\s }{\second }\)
\(\newcommand {\fmol }{\femto \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\pmol }{\pico \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\nmol }{\nano \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\umol }{\micro \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\mmol }{\milli \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\mol }{\mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\kmol }{\kilo \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\pA }{\pico \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\nA }{\nano \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\uA }{\micro \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\mA }{\milli \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\A }{\ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\kA }{\kilo \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\ul }{\micro \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\ml }{\milli \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\l }{\litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\hl }{\hecto \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\uL }{\micro \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\mL }{\milli \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\L }{\liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\hL }{\hecto \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\mHz }{\milli \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\Hz }{\hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\kHz }{\kilo \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\MHz }{\mega \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\GHz }{\giga \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\THz }{\tera \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\mN }{\milli \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\N }{\newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\kN }{\kilo \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\MN }{\mega \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\Pa }{\pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\kPa }{\kilo \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\MPa }{\mega \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\GPa }{\giga \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\mohm }{\milli \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\kohm }{\kilo \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\Mohm }{\mega \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\pV }{\pico \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\nV }{\nano \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\uV }{\micro \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\mV }{\milli \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\V }{\volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kV }{\kilo \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\W }{\watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\uW }{\micro \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\mW }{\milli \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kW }{\kilo \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\MW }{\mega \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\GW }{\giga \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\J }{\joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\uJ }{\micro \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\mJ }{\milli \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\kJ }{\kilo \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\eV }{\electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\meV }{\milli \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\keV }{\kilo \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\MeV }{\mega \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\GeV }{\giga \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\TeV }{\tera \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kWh }{\kilo \watt \hour }\)
\(\newcommand {\F }{\farad }\)
\(\newcommand {\fF }{\femto \farad }\)
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\(\newcommand {\K }{\mathrm {K}}\)
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Operatoren
linearer Operator: Seien \(X\) ein Banachraum und \(D(T) \le X\) ein Unterraum.
Eine lineare Abbildung \(T\colon D(T) \rightarrow X\) heißt linearer Operator auf \(X\). Man schreibt \((T, D(T))\).
dicht definiert: Ein linearer Operator \(T\colon D(T) \rightarrow X\) heißt dicht definiert, falls \(\overline {D(T)} = X\).
abgeschlossen: Ein linearer Operator \(T\colon D(T) \rightarrow X\) heißt abgeschlossen, falls
\(\graph (T) := \{(x, Tx) \;|\; x \in D(T)\} \subset X^2\) abgeschlossen ist, d. h. falls für alle Folgen \(x_n \in D(T)\) mit \(x_n \xrightarrow {n \to \infty } x \in X\) und \(Tx_n
\xrightarrow {n \to \infty } y \in X\) gilt, dass \(x \in D(T)\) und \(Tx = y\).
Satz (Charakterisierung der Stetigkeit von abg., dicht def., lin. Operatoren):
Sei \((T, D(T))\) ein abgeschlossener, dicht definierter, linearer Operator.
Dann gilt \(D(T) = X\) \(\iff \) \(T\) stetig.
Satz (Vertauschung von Integral und Operator): Seien \(u \in \C ^0([a, b], X)\) und \((T, D(T))\) ein abgeschlossener, linearer Operator mit
\(\Bild (u) \subset D(T)\) und \(T \circ u \in \C ^0([a, b], X)\).
Dann gilt \(T(\int _a^b u(s)\ds ) = \int _a^b T(u(s))\ds \). (Insbesondere gilt dies, falls \(T \in \Lin (X)\).)
Satz (Hauptsatz der Diff.- und Int.rechnung): Sei \(u \in \C ^0([a, b], X)\) differenzierbar in
\(t \in (a, b)\). Dann gilt \(\lim _{h \to 0} \frac {1}{h} \int _t^{t+h} u(s)\ds = u(t)\).
Operatorhalbgruppen
Bemerkung: Man betrachtet die gewöhnliche DGL \(u’(t) = Au(t)\), \(u(0) = u_0\) mit einer konstanten \((n \times n)\)-Matrix \(A\). Diese DGL besitzt für alle \(t \in \real \) eine
eindeutige Lösung \(u(t)\). Bezeichnet man mit \(T(t)\) den Lösungsoperator ausgewertet zur Zeit \(t\), d. h. \(T(t)u_0 := u(t)\) mit \(u(t)\) der
Lösung zur Anfangsbedingung \(u(0) = u_0\), dann kann man diesen mit dem Matrixexponential explizit angeben: Es gilt \(T(t) = e^{tA} := \sum _{n=0}^\infty \frac {1}{n!} t^n A^n\).
Im Folgenden soll dieses Konzept auf unendlich-dimensionale Räume verallgemeinert werden.
Operatorhalbgruppe: Eine stark stetige (Operator-)Halbgruppe (oder \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe) ist eine Familie
\((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) von Operatoren \(T(t) \in \Lin (X)\) auf einem Banachraum \(X\), sodass
\(T(0) = \id \),
\(\forall _{s, t \ge 0}\; T(s+t) = T(s) T(t)\) (Halbgruppen-Eigenschaft) und
\(\forall _{x \in X}\; T(t) x \xrightarrow {t \to 0} x\).
Gilt statt (3) sogar die stärkere Forderung
dann spricht man von einer normstetigen (Operator-)Halbgruppe.
Operatorgruppe: Eine stark stetige (Operator)-Gruppe (oder \(\C _0\)-Gruppe) ist eine Familie \((T(t))_{t \in
\real }\) von Operatoren wie eben, sodass (1), (2), (3) von eben sinngemäß gelten.
Analog sind normstetige (Operator-)Gruppen definiert.
Beispiele
Beispiel:
Seien \(X\) ein Banachraum und \(A \in \Lin (X)\).
Dann ist \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) eine normstetige Halbgruppe mit \(T(t) := e^{tA}\) und \(e^{tA} := \sum _{n=0}^\infty \frac {1}{n!} t^n A^n\).
Lässt man \(t \in \real \) zu, dann erhält man eine normstetige Gruppe.
Seien \(X \in \{\C ^0_\unif ([0, \infty )), \C ^0_0([0, \infty )), L^p([0,\infty )) \;|\; p \in [1, \infty )\}\) mit
\(\C ^0_0([0, \infty )) := \{f \in \C ^0_b([0, \infty )) \;|\; \forall _{\varepsilon >0} \exists _{K \subset [0, \infty ) \text { kpkt.}} \forall _{x \in [0, \infty ) \setminus K}\; |f(x)|
< \varepsilon \}\)
(es gilt \(\C ^0_0 = \{f \in \C ^0 \;|\; \lim _{|x| \to \infty } f(x) = 0\}\), außerdem gilt \(\C ^0_0 \le \C ^0_\unif \)).
Dann ist \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) mit \((T(t) f)(x) := f(x + t)\) für \(t \ge 0\), \(f \in X\) und \(x \in [0, \infty )\) eine \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe, aber keine normstetige Halbgruppe, die sog. Translationshalbgruppe.
Für \(\C ^0_b\) oder \(L^\infty \) als \(X\) würde man keine \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe erhalten.
Ersetzt man \([0, \infty )\) durch \(\real \) und lässt \(t \in \real \) zu, so erhält man eine \(\C _0\)-Gruppe.
Sei \(X \in \{\C ^0_\unif (\real ^n), \C ^0_0(\real ^n), L^p(\real ^n) \;|\; p \in [1, \infty )\}\). Dann ist \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) mit
\((T(t) f)(x) := \frac {1}{(4\pi t)^{n/2}} \int _{\real ^n} e^{-|x-y|^2/(4t)} f(y)\dy \) für \(t > 0\), \(f \in X\) und \(x \in \real ^n\) sowie \(T(0) := \id \) eine \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe, die
sog. Wärmeleitungshalbgruppe oder Brownsche Halbgruppe.
Wachstumsschranken und Stetigkeit
Lemma (
Wachstumslemma): Sei \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) eine \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe.
Dann gilt \(\exists _{M \ge 1} \exists _{\omega \in \real } \forall _{t \ge 0}\; \norm {T(t)}_{\Lin (X)} \le Me^{\omega t}\).
exponentielle Wachstumsschranke: \(\omega _0 := \inf \{\omega \in \real \;|\; \exists _{M \ge 1} \forall _{t \ge 0}\; \norm {T(t)}_{\Lin (X)} \le Me^{\omega t}\}\) heißt (exponentielle) Wachstumsschranke der \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\).
Bemerkung: Nach dem Lemma ist die Menge, von der das Infimum gebildet wird, nicht-leer, d. h. \(\omega _0 < +\infty \). Allerdings kann \(\omega _0 = -\infty \) sein und \(\omega _0\) muss nicht
angenommen werden.
Kontraktionshalbgruppe: Ist im Wachstumslemma \(M = 1\), \(\omega = 0\) möglich, d. h. gilt
\(\forall _{t \ge 0}\; \norm {T(t)}_{\Lin (X)} \le 1\), dann heißt die \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) Kontraktionshalbgruppe.
Lemma (Stetigkeit): Sei \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) eine \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe auf einem Banachraum \(X\).
Dann ist die Abbildung \([0, \infty ) \times X \to X\), \((t, x) \mapsto T(t) x\) stetig, genauer gleichmäßig stetig in \(t\) auf kompakten Teilmengen von \([0, \infty )\).
Insbesondere ist für jedes \(x \in X\) die Abbildung \(u\colon [0, \infty ) \to X\), \(t \mapsto T(t) x\) stetig,
d. h. \(u \in \C ^0([0, \infty ), X)\).
Erzeuger
Bemerkung: In diesem Abschnitt ist \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) eine \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppe auf dem Banachraum \(X\).
Erzeuger: Der (infinitesimale) Erzeuger (oder Generator) von \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) ist der Operator \((A,
D(A))\) mit \(Ax := \lim _{h \to 0+0} \frac {T(h) x - x}{h}\) und \(D(A) := \{x \in X \;|\; \text {$\lim _{h \to 0+0} \frac {T(h) x - x}{h}$ existiert in $X$}\}\).
Bemerkung: Der Erzeuger ist linear, aber i. A. nicht überall definiert und nicht stetig.
absolutstetig: \(f\colon [a, b] \to \real \) heißt absolutstetig, falls
\(\forall _{\varepsilon > 0} \exists _{\delta > 0} \forall _{a \le x_0 < \dotsb < x_n \le b}\; \big [\sum _{k=1}^n (x_k - x_{k-1}) < \delta \implies \sum _{k=1}^n |f(x_k) -
f(x_{k-1})| < \varepsilon \big ]\).
Bemerkung: Es gilt \(f\) Lipschitz-stetig \(\implies \) \(f\) absolutstetig \(\implies \) \(f\) gleichmäßig stetig.
Es gilt \(f\) absolutstetig \(\iff \) \(\exists _{g \in L^1([a, b])} \forall _{x \in [a, b]}\; f(x) = f(a) + \int _a^x g(t)\dt \). In diesem Fall ist \(f\) fast überall differenzierbar, es gilt \(f’ \in
L^1([a, b])\) und \(g = f’\) fast überall.
Beispiel:
Der Erzeuger von \((e^{tA})_{t \ge 0}\) ist \(A\).
Sei \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) bzw. \((T(t))_{t \in \real }\) die Translationshalbgruppe bzw. -gruppe und \(A\) der Erzeuger.
Ist \(X = \C ^0_0([0, \infty ))\) bzw. \(X = \C ^0_0(\real )\), dann ist \(A = \frac {d}{dx}\) mit
\(D(A) = \{f \in \C ^0_0 \;|\; \text {$f’$ existiert und $f’ \in \C ^0_0$}\}\).
Ist \(X = L^p([0, \infty ))\) bzw. \(X = L^p(\real )\) mit \(p \in [1, \infty )\), dann ist \(A = \frac {d}{dx}\) mit
\(D(A) = \{f \in L^p \;|\; \text {$f$ ist absolutstetig und $f’ \in L^p$}\}\).
Sei \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) die Wärmeleitungshalbgruppe und \(A\) der Erzeuger.
Ist \(X = L^p(\real ^n)\), dann ist \(A = \Delta \) mit \(D(A) = W^{2,p}(\real ^n)\)
(d. h. \(D(A) = H^2(\real ^n)\) für \(p = 2\)).
Lemma (Erzeuger): Seien \(A\) der Erzeuger von \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) und \(t \ge 0\). Dann gilt
\(\int _0^t T(s) x\ds \in D(A)\) und \(A(\int _0^t T(s) x\ds ) = T(t) x - x\) für alle \(x \in X\),
\(T(t) x \in D(A)\) und \(A T(t) x = T(t) A x\) für alle \(x \in D(A)\) sowie
\(T(t) x - x = \int _0^t T(s) Ax\ds \) für alle \(x \in D(A)\).
Satz (Erzeuger dicht def. und abg.): Sei \(A\) der Erzeuger von \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\).
Dann ist \(A\) dicht definiert und abgeschlossen.
Satz (Erzeuger als rechte Seite einer DGL): Seien \(A\) der Erzeuger von \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\) und \(x_0 \in D(A)\).
Dann ist \(u\colon [0, \infty ) \rightarrow X\), \(u(t) := T(t) x_0\), stetig differenzierbar, \(D(A)\)-wertig und die eindeutige Lösung des AWPs der abstrakten banachraumwertigen gewöhnlichen DGL
(abstraktes Cauchy-Problem) \(u’ = Au\), \(u(0) = x_0\). Außerdem hängt \(u(t)\) für alle \(t \ge 0\) stetig von \(x_0\)
ab.
Folgerung: Zwei \(\C _0\)-Halbgruppen auf \(X\) mit demselben Erzeuger stimmen überein.
Satz (Äquivalenz zur Normstetigkeit): Sei \(A\) der Erzeuger von \((T(t))_{t \ge 0}\). Dann sind äquivalent:
In diesem Fall gilt \(\forall _{t \ge 0}\; T(t) = e^{tA}\).
Bemerkung: Die Äquivalenz \(\text {\emph {(2)}} \iff \text {\emph {(3)}}\) gilt auch für jeden anderen dicht definierten, abgeschlossenen linearen Operator auf einem Banachraum, siehe
oben.