\(\newcommand{\footnotename}{footnote}\)
\(\def \LWRfootnote {1}\)
\(\newcommand {\footnote }[2][\LWRfootnote ]{{}^{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\footnotemark }[1][\LWRfootnote ]{{}^{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand \ensuremath [1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRframebox }[2][]{\fbox {#2}} \newcommand {\framebox }[1][]{\LWRframebox } \)
\(\newcommand {\setlength }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\addtolength }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\setcounter }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\addtocounter }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\cline }[1]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\directlua }[1]{\text {(directlua)}}\)
\(\newcommand {\luatexdirectlua }[1]{\text {(directlua)}}\)
\(\newcommand {\protect }{}\)
\(\def \LWRabsorbnumber #1 {}\)
\(\def \LWRabsorbquotenumber "#1 {}\)
\(\def \mathchar {\ifnextchar "\LWRabsorbquotenumber \LWRabsorbnumber }\)
\(\def \mathcode #1={\mathchar }\)
\(\let \delcode \mathcode \)
\(\let \delimiter \mathchar \)
\(\let \LWRref \ref \)
\(\renewcommand {\ref }{\ifstar \LWRref \LWRref }\)
\(\newcommand {\intertext }[1]{\text {#1}\notag \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathllap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathrlap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathclap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathmbox }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\clap }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmathmakebox }[2][]{#2}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathmakebox }[1][]{\LWRmathmakebox }\)
\(\newcommand {\cramped }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedllap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedrlap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedclap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newenvironment {crampedsubarray}[1]{}{}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedsubstack }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\smashoperator }[2][]{#2\limits }\)
\(\newcommand {\adjustlimits }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\SwapAboveDisplaySkip }{}\)
\(\require {extpfeil}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftrightarrow {10,10}{0x2194}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xLeftarrow {10,10}{0x21d0}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xhookleftarrow {10,10}{0x21a9}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xmapsto {10,10}{0x21a6}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xRightarrow {10,10}{0x21d2}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xLeftrightarrow {10,10}{0x21d4}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xhookrightarrow {10,10}{0x21aa}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightharpoondown {10,10}{0x21c1}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftharpoondown {10,10}{0x21bd}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightleftharpoons {10,10}{0x21cc}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightharpoonup {10,10}{0x21c0}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftharpoonup {10,10}{0x21bc}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftrightharpoons {10,10}{0x21cb}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRdounderbracket }[3]{\underset {#3}{\underline {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRunderbracket }[2][]{\LWRdounderbracket {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\underbracket }[1][]{\LWRunderbracket }\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRdooverbracket }[3]{\overset {#3}{\overline {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRoverbracket }[2][]{\LWRdooverbracket {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\overbracket }[1][]{\LWRoverbracket }\)
\(\newcommand {\LATEXunderbrace }[1]{\underbrace {#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LATEXoverbrace }[1]{\overbrace {#1}}\)
\(\newenvironment {matrix*}[1][]{\begin {matrix}}{\end {matrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {pmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {smallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {matrix}}{\end {matrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {psmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {psmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmultlined }[1][]{\begin {multline*}}\)
\(\newenvironment {multlined}[1][]{\LWRmultlined }{\end {multline*}}\)
\(\let \LWRorigshoveleft \shoveleft \)
\(\renewcommand {\shoveleft }[1][]{\LWRorigshoveleft }\)
\(\let \LWRorigshoveright \shoveright \)
\(\renewcommand {\shoveright }[1][]{\LWRorigshoveright }\)
\(\newenvironment {dcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {dcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {drcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {drcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {cases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newcommand {\MoveEqLeft }[1][]{}\)
\(\def \LWRAboxed #1!|!{\fbox {\(#1\)}&\fbox {\(#2\)}} \newcommand {\Aboxed }[1]{\LWRAboxed #1&&!|!} \)
\( \newcommand {\LWRABLines }[1][\Updownarrow ]{#1 \notag \\}\newcommand {\ArrowBetweenLines }{\ifstar \LWRABLines \LWRABLines } \)
\(\newcommand {\shortintertext }[1]{\text {#1}\notag \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\vdotswithin }[1]{\hspace {.5em}\vdots }\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRshortvdotswithinstar }[1]{\vdots \hspace {.5em} & \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRshortvdotswithinnostar }[1]{& \hspace {.5em}\vdots \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\shortvdotswithin }{\ifstar \LWRshortvdotswithinstar \LWRshortvdotswithinnostar }\)
\(\newcommand {\MTFlushSpaceAbove }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\MTFlushSpaceBelow }{\\}\)
\(\newcommand \lparen {(}\)
\(\newcommand \rparen {)}\)
\(\newcommand {\ordinarycolon }{:}\)
\(\newcommand {\vcentcolon }{\mathrel {\mathop \ordinarycolon }}\)
\(\newcommand \dblcolon {\vcentcolon \vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \coloneqq {\vcentcolon =}\)
\(\newcommand \Coloneqq {\dblcolon =}\)
\(\newcommand \coloneq {\vcentcolon {-}}\)
\(\newcommand \Coloneq {\dblcolon {-}}\)
\(\newcommand \eqqcolon {=\vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \Eqqcolon {=\dblcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \eqcolon {\mathrel {-}\vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \Eqcolon {\mathrel {-}\dblcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \colonapprox {\vcentcolon \approx }\)
\(\newcommand \Colonapprox {\dblcolon \approx }\)
\(\newcommand \colonsim {\vcentcolon \sim }\)
\(\newcommand \Colonsim {\dblcolon \sim }\)
\(\newcommand {\nuparrow }{\mathrel {\cancel {\uparrow }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ndownarrow }{\mathrel {\cancel {\downarrow }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\bigtimes }{\mathop {\Large \times }\limits }\)
\(\newcommand {\prescript }[3]{{}^{#1}_{#2}#3}\)
\(\newenvironment {lgathered}{\begin {gathered}}{\end {gathered}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rgathered}{\begin {gathered}}{\end {gathered}}\)
\(\newcommand {\splitfrac }[2]{{}^{#1}_{#2}}\)
\(\let \splitdfrac \splitfrac \)
\(\newcommand {\LWRoverlaysymbols }[2]{\mathord {\smash {\mathop {#2\strut }\limits ^{\smash {\lower 3ex{#1}}}}\strut }}\)
\(\newcommand{\alphaup}{\unicode{x03B1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\betaup}{\unicode{x03B2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\gammaup}{\unicode{x03B3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\digammaup}{\unicode{x03DD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\deltaup}{\unicode{x03B4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\epsilonup}{\unicode{x03F5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varepsilonup}{\unicode{x03B5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\zetaup}{\unicode{x03B6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\etaup}{\unicode{x03B7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\thetaup}{\unicode{x03B8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varthetaup}{\unicode{x03D1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\iotaup}{\unicode{x03B9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\kappaup}{\unicode{x03BA}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varkappaup}{\unicode{x03F0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\lambdaup}{\unicode{x03BB}}\)
\(\newcommand{\muup}{\unicode{x03BC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\nuup}{\unicode{x03BD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\xiup}{\unicode{x03BE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omicronup}{\unicode{x03BF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\piup}{\unicode{x03C0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varpiup}{\unicode{x03D6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\rhoup}{\unicode{x03C1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varrhoup}{\unicode{x03F1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\sigmaup}{\unicode{x03C3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varsigmaup}{\unicode{x03C2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\tauup}{\unicode{x03C4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\upsilonup}{\unicode{x03C5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\phiup}{\unicode{x03D5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varphiup}{\unicode{x03C6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\chiup}{\unicode{x03C7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\psiup}{\unicode{x03C8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omegaup}{\unicode{x03C9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Alphaup}{\unicode{x0391}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Betaup}{\unicode{x0392}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Gammaup}{\unicode{x0393}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Digammaup}{\unicode{x03DC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Deltaup}{\unicode{x0394}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Epsilonup}{\unicode{x0395}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Zetaup}{\unicode{x0396}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Etaup}{\unicode{x0397}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Thetaup}{\unicode{x0398}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varthetaup}{\unicode{x03F4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Iotaup}{\unicode{x0399}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Kappaup}{\unicode{x039A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Lambdaup}{\unicode{x039B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Muup}{\unicode{x039C}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Nuup}{\unicode{x039D}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Xiup}{\unicode{x039E}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omicronup}{\unicode{x039F}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Piup}{\unicode{x03A0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varpiup}{\unicode{x03D6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Rhoup}{\unicode{x03A1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Sigmaup}{\unicode{x03A3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Tauup}{\unicode{x03A4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Upsilonup}{\unicode{x03A5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Phiup}{\unicode{x03A6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Chiup}{\unicode{x03A7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Psiup}{\unicode{x03A8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omegaup}{\unicode{x03A9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\alphait}{\unicode{x1D6FC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\betait}{\unicode{x1D6FD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\gammait}{\unicode{x1D6FE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\digammait}{\mathit{\unicode{x03DD}}}\)
\(\newcommand{\deltait}{\unicode{x1D6FF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\epsilonit}{\unicode{x1D716}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varepsilonit}{\unicode{x1D700}}\)
\(\newcommand{\zetait}{\unicode{x1D701}}\)
\(\newcommand{\etait}{\unicode{x1D702}}\)
\(\newcommand{\thetait}{\unicode{x1D703}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varthetait}{\unicode{x1D717}}\)
\(\newcommand{\iotait}{\unicode{x1D704}}\)
\(\newcommand{\kappait}{\unicode{x1D705}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varkappait}{\unicode{x1D718}}\)
\(\newcommand{\lambdait}{\unicode{x1D706}}\)
\(\newcommand{\muit}{\unicode{x1D707}}\)
\(\newcommand{\nuit}{\unicode{x1D708}}\)
\(\newcommand{\xiit}{\unicode{x1D709}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omicronit}{\unicode{x1D70A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\piit}{\unicode{x1D70B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varpiit}{\unicode{x1D71B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\rhoit}{\unicode{x1D70C}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varrhoit}{\unicode{x1D71A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\sigmait}{\unicode{x1D70E}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varsigmait}{\unicode{x1D70D}}\)
\(\newcommand{\tauit}{\unicode{x1D70F}}\)
\(\newcommand{\upsilonit}{\unicode{x1D710}}\)
\(\newcommand{\phiit}{\unicode{x1D719}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varphiit}{\unicode{x1D711}}\)
\(\newcommand{\chiit}{\unicode{x1D712}}\)
\(\newcommand{\psiit}{\unicode{x1D713}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omegait}{\unicode{x1D714}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Alphait}{\unicode{x1D6E2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Betait}{\unicode{x1D6E3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Gammait}{\unicode{x1D6E4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Digammait}{\mathit{\unicode{x03DC}}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Deltait}{\unicode{x1D6E5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Epsilonit}{\unicode{x1D6E6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Zetait}{\unicode{x1D6E7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Etait}{\unicode{x1D6E8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Thetait}{\unicode{x1D6E9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varthetait}{\unicode{x1D6F3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Iotait}{\unicode{x1D6EA}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Kappait}{\unicode{x1D6EB}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Lambdait}{\unicode{x1D6EC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Muit}{\unicode{x1D6ED}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Nuit}{\unicode{x1D6EE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Xiit}{\unicode{x1D6EF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omicronit}{\unicode{x1D6F0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Piit}{\unicode{x1D6F1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Rhoit}{\unicode{x1D6F2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Sigmait}{\unicode{x1D6F4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Tauit}{\unicode{x1D6F5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Upsilonit}{\unicode{x1D6F6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Phiit}{\unicode{x1D6F7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Chiit}{\unicode{x1D6F8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Psiit}{\unicode{x1D6F9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omegait}{\unicode{x1D6FA}}\)
\(\let \digammaup \Digammaup \)
\(\renewcommand {\digammait }{\mathit {\digammaup }}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallin }{\unicode {x220A}}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallowns }{\unicode {x220D}}\)
\(\newcommand {\notsmallin }{\LWRoverlaysymbols {/}{\unicode {x220A}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\notsmallowns }{\LWRoverlaysymbols {/}{\unicode {x220D}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\rightangle }{\unicode {x221F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\intclockwise }{\unicode {x2231}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ointclockwise }{\unicode {x2232}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ointctrclockwise }{\unicode {x2233}}\)
\(\newcommand {\oiint }{\unicode {x222F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\oiiint }{\unicode {x2230}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ddag }{\unicode {x2021}}\)
\(\newcommand {\P }{\unicode {x00B6}}\)
\(\newcommand {\copyright }{\unicode {x00A9}}\)
\(\newcommand {\dag }{\unicode {x2020}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pounds }{\unicode {x00A3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\iddots }{\unicode {x22F0}}\)
\(\newcommand {\utimes }{\overline {\times }}\)
\(\newcommand {\dtimes }{\underline {\times }}\)
\(\newcommand {\udtimes }{\overline {\underline {\times }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\leftwave }{\left \{}\)
\(\newcommand {\rightwave }{\right \}}\)
\(\newcommand {\toprule }[1][]{\hline }\)
\(\let \midrule \toprule \)
\(\let \bottomrule \toprule \)
\(\newcommand {\cmidrule }[2][]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\morecmidrules }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\specialrule }[3]{\hline }\)
\(\newcommand {\addlinespace }[1][]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRsubmultirow }[2][]{#2}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmultirow }[2][]{\LWRsubmultirow }\)
\(\newcommand {\multirow }[2][]{\LWRmultirow }\)
\(\newcommand {\mrowcell }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\mcolrowcell }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\STneed }[1]{}\)
\( \newcommand {\multicolumn }[3]{#3}\)
\(\newcommand {\tothe }[1]{^{#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\raiseto }[2]{{#2}^{#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ang }[2][]{(\mathrm {#2})\degree }\)
\(\newcommand {\num }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\si }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRSI }[2][]{\mathrm {#1\LWRSInumber \,#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SI }[2][]{\def \LWRSInumber {#2}\LWRSI }\)
\(\newcommand {\numlist }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\numrange }[3][]{\mathrm {#2\,\unicode {x2013}\,#3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SIlist }[3][]{\mathrm {#2\,#3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SIrange }[4][]{\mathrm {#2\,#4\,\unicode {x2013}\,#3\,#4}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tablenum }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ampere }{\mathrm {A}}\)
\(\newcommand {\candela }{\mathrm {cd}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kelvin }{\mathrm {K}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kilogram }{\mathrm {kg}}\)
\(\newcommand {\metre }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mole }{\mathrm {mol}}\)
\(\newcommand {\second }{\mathrm {s}}\)
\(\newcommand {\becquerel }{\mathrm {Bq}}\)
\(\newcommand {\degreeCelsius }{\unicode {x2103}}\)
\(\newcommand {\coulomb }{\mathrm {C}}\)
\(\newcommand {\farad }{\mathrm {F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gray }{\mathrm {Gy}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hertz }{\mathrm {Hz}}\)
\(\newcommand {\henry }{\mathrm {H}}\)
\(\newcommand {\joule }{\mathrm {J}}\)
\(\newcommand {\katal }{\mathrm {kat}}\)
\(\newcommand {\lumen }{\mathrm {lm}}\)
\(\newcommand {\lux }{\mathrm {lx}}\)
\(\newcommand {\newton }{\mathrm {N}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ohm }{\mathrm {\Omega }}\)
\(\newcommand {\pascal }{\mathrm {Pa}}\)
\(\newcommand {\radian }{\mathrm {rad}}\)
\(\newcommand {\siemens }{\mathrm {S}}\)
\(\newcommand {\sievert }{\mathrm {Sv}}\)
\(\newcommand {\steradian }{\mathrm {sr}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tesla }{\mathrm {T}}\)
\(\newcommand {\volt }{\mathrm {V}}\)
\(\newcommand {\watt }{\mathrm {W}}\)
\(\newcommand {\weber }{\mathrm {Wb}}\)
\(\newcommand {\day }{\mathrm {d}}\)
\(\newcommand {\degree }{\mathrm {^\circ }}\)
\(\newcommand {\hectare }{\mathrm {ha}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hour }{\mathrm {h}}\)
\(\newcommand {\litre }{\mathrm {l}}\)
\(\newcommand {\liter }{\mathrm {L}}\)
\(\newcommand {\arcminute }{^\prime }\)
\(\newcommand {\minute }{\mathrm {min}}\)
\(\newcommand {\arcsecond }{^{\prime \prime }}\)
\(\newcommand {\tonne }{\mathrm {t}}\)
\(\newcommand {\astronomicalunit }{au}\)
\(\newcommand {\atomicmassunit }{u}\)
\(\newcommand {\bohr }{\mathit {a}_0}\)
\(\newcommand {\clight }{\mathit {c}_0}\)
\(\newcommand {\dalton }{\mathrm {D}_\mathrm {a}}\)
\(\newcommand {\electronmass }{\mathit {m}_{\mathrm {e}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\electronvolt }{\mathrm {eV}}\)
\(\newcommand {\elementarycharge }{\mathit {e}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hartree }{\mathit {E}_{\mathrm {h}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\planckbar }{\mathit {\unicode {x210F}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\angstrom }{\mathrm {\unicode {x212B}}}\)
\(\let \LWRorigbar \bar \)
\(\newcommand {\bar }{\mathrm {bar}}\)
\(\newcommand {\barn }{\mathrm {b}}\)
\(\newcommand {\bel }{\mathrm {B}}\)
\(\newcommand {\decibel }{\mathrm {dB}}\)
\(\newcommand {\knot }{\mathrm {kn}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mmHg }{\mathrm {mmHg}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nauticalmile }{\mathrm {M}}\)
\(\newcommand {\neper }{\mathrm {Np}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yocto }{\mathrm {y}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zepto }{\mathrm {z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\atto }{\mathrm {a}}\)
\(\newcommand {\femto }{\mathrm {f}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pico }{\mathrm {p}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nano }{\mathrm {n}}\)
\(\newcommand {\micro }{\mathrm {\unicode {x00B5}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\milli }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\centi }{\mathrm {c}}\)
\(\newcommand {\deci }{\mathrm {d}}\)
\(\newcommand {\deca }{\mathrm {da}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hecto }{\mathrm {h}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kilo }{\mathrm {k}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mega }{\mathrm {M}}\)
\(\newcommand {\giga }{\mathrm {G}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tera }{\mathrm {T}}\)
\(\newcommand {\peta }{\mathrm {P}}\)
\(\newcommand {\exa }{\mathrm {E}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zetta }{\mathrm {Z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yotta }{\mathrm {Y}}\)
\(\newcommand {\percent }{\mathrm {\%}}\)
\(\newcommand {\meter }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\metre }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gram }{\mathrm {g}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kg }{\kilo \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\of }[1]{_{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\squared }{^2}\)
\(\newcommand {\square }[1]{\mathrm {#1}^2}\)
\(\newcommand {\cubed }{^3}\)
\(\newcommand {\cubic }[1]{\mathrm {#1}^3}\)
\(\newcommand {\per }{/}\)
\(\newcommand {\celsius }{\unicode {x2103}}\)
\(\newcommand {\fg }{\femto \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\pg }{\pico \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\ng }{\nano \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\ug }{\micro \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\mg }{\milli \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\g }{\gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\kg }{\kilo \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\amu }{\mathrm {u}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nm }{\nano \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\um }{\micro \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\mm }{\milli \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\cm }{\centi \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\dm }{\deci \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\m }{\metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\km }{\kilo \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\as }{\atto \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\fs }{\femto \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ps }{\pico \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ns }{\nano \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\us }{\micro \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ms }{\milli \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\s }{\second }\)
\(\newcommand {\fmol }{\femto \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\pmol }{\pico \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\nmol }{\nano \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\umol }{\micro \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\mmol }{\milli \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\mol }{\mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\kmol }{\kilo \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\pA }{\pico \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\nA }{\nano \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\uA }{\micro \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\mA }{\milli \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\A }{\ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\kA }{\kilo \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\ul }{\micro \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\ml }{\milli \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\l }{\litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\hl }{\hecto \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\uL }{\micro \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\mL }{\milli \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\L }{\liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\hL }{\hecto \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\mHz }{\milli \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\Hz }{\hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\kHz }{\kilo \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\MHz }{\mega \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\GHz }{\giga \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\THz }{\tera \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\mN }{\milli \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\N }{\newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\kN }{\kilo \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\MN }{\mega \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\Pa }{\pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\kPa }{\kilo \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\MPa }{\mega \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\GPa }{\giga \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\mohm }{\milli \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\kohm }{\kilo \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\Mohm }{\mega \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\pV }{\pico \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\nV }{\nano \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\uV }{\micro \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\mV }{\milli \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\V }{\volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kV }{\kilo \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\W }{\watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\uW }{\micro \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\mW }{\milli \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kW }{\kilo \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\MW }{\mega \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\GW }{\giga \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\J }{\joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\uJ }{\micro \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\mJ }{\milli \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\kJ }{\kilo \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\eV }{\electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\meV }{\milli \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\keV }{\kilo \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\MeV }{\mega \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\GeV }{\giga \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\TeV }{\tera \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kWh }{\kilo \watt \hour }\)
\(\newcommand {\F }{\farad }\)
\(\newcommand {\fF }{\femto \farad }\)
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Kriterien für Quadratzahlen
einfacher Spezialfall: Wurzelziehen in einer endlichen Gruppe \(G\) mit \(|G|\) ungerade
Ist \(G\) eine endliche Gruppe mit \(|G|\) ungerade und \(a \in G\), so ist \(a^{(|G|+1)/2}\) eine Wurzel von \(a\) nach dem Satz von Lagrange (wegen \((a^{(|G|+1)/2})^2 = a^{|G|} a = a\)). Insbesondere besitzt jedes
Element eine Wurzel.
Körper mit geraden vielen Elementen:
Damit besitzt in endlichen Körpern \(\FF \) mit \(|\FF |\) gerade jedes Element eine Wurzel, da dann \((\FF ^\ast , \cdot )\) endliche Gruppe mit \(|\FF ^\ast |\) ungerade ist, wobei \(\FF ^\ast := \FF
\setminus \{0\}\). Weil \(|\FF |\) immer eine Primzahlpotenz ist, tritt dieser Fall ein genau dann, wenn \(|\FF | = 2^k\) für ein \(k \in \natural \). OBdA kann man im Folgenden also von \(|\FF |\) ungerade
ausgehen.
Körper mit ungeraden vielen Elementen:
Sei im Folgenden \(\FF \) ein Körper mit \(q := |\FF |\) ungerade (es gilt \(\FF \cong \FF _q\)).
Satz (Euler-Kriterium): Sei \(a \in (\FF _q)^\ast \) mit \(q\) ungerade.
Dann ist \(a\) eine Quadratzahl in \((\FF _q)^\ast \) genau dann, wenn \(a^{(q-1)/2} = 1\) (sonst ist \(a^{(q-1)/2} = -1\)). Genau die Hälfte der Elemente aus \((\FF _q)^\ast \) ist eine Quadratzahl.
Algorithmus von Cipolla
Algorithmus von Cipolla: Seien \(\FF \) ein Körper mit \(q := |\FF |\) ungerade und \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) eine Quadratzahl. Der Algorithmus von Cipolla bestimmt die Wurzel von \(a\) in \(\FF \) wie folgt:
Wähle \(t \in \FF \) solange zufällig, bis \(t^2 - 4a\) kein Quadrat ist.
Setze \(f(X) := X^2 - tX + a \in \FF [X]\).
Gebe \(X^{(q+1)/2} \bmod f(X)\) aus.
Satz (Korrektheit): Der Algorithmus von Cipolla arbeitet korrekt, d. h. \(\overline {X^{q+1}} = \overline {a}\).
Beweis: \(t^2 - 4a\) ist die Diskriminante von \(f(X)\) und keine Quadratzahl nach Konstruktion. Damit ist \(f(X)\) irreduzibel und \(\KK := \FF [X]/\erzeugnis {f(X)}\) ein Körper. Definiere nun das
Polynom \(g(Y) := Y^2 - \overline {t} Y + \overline {a} \in \KK [Y]\). Dann hat \(g(Y)\) die beiden Nullstellen \(\overline {X}, \overline {t - X} \in \KK \setminus \FF \), denn \(g(\overline {X}) =
\overline {X^2 - tX + a} = \overline {f(X)} = 0\), \(g(\overline {t - X}) = \overline {(t - X)^2 - t(t - X) + a} = \overline {X^2 - tX + a} = 0\). \(g(Y)\) ist normiert, d. h. es gilt damit \(g(Y)
= (Y - \overline {X}) (Y - \overline {(t - X)}) = Y^2 - \overline {t}Y + \overline {X(t-X)}\). Mit Koeffizientenvergleich muss daher \(\overline {a} = \overline {X(t - X)}\) gelten. Aus \(a = a^{|\FF
^\ast |} a = a^{q-1} a = a^q\) folgt nun \(\overline {a} = \overline {X}^q \overline {(t - X)}^q = \overline {X}^q (\overline {t^q} - \overline {X}^q) = \overline {X}^q (\overline {t} -
\overline {X}^q)\). Damit gilt aber \((Y - \overline {X}^q) (Y - \overline {(t - X^q)})\)
\(= Y^2 - \overline {t}Y + \overline {X}^q (\overline {t} - \overline {X}^q) = Y^2 - \overline {t}Y + \overline {a} = g(Y)\), d. h. \(\overline {X}^q, \overline {(t - X^q)}\) sind auch
jeweils Nullstellen von \(g\). Polynome im Körper \(\KK \) haben höchstens zwei Nullstellen, d. h. \(\{\overline {X}, \overline {t - X}\} = \{\overline {X}^q, \overline {(t - X^q)}\}\).
Es gilt \(\overline {X}^q \not = \overline {X}\), da \(\overline {X}\) sonst eine Nullstelle von \(Y^q - Y \in \KK [Y]\) wäre (dieses Polynom hat nur alle Elemente aus \(\FF \) als Nullstelle, es gilt aber
\(\overline {X} \notin \FF \)). Damit muss \(\overline {X}^q = \overline {t - X}\) gelten sowie \(\overline {X^{q+1}} = \overline {X} \cdot \overline {X}^q = \overline {X} \overline {(t - X)} =
\overline {a}\).
Nach dem Satz ist \(\overline {X^{(q+1)/2}}\) eine Wurzel von \(a\) in \(\KK \). Weil aber \(a\) eine Quadratzahl in \(\FF \) ist, liegen alle Wurzeln in \(\FF \) und es gibt ein Element in \(\FF \) mit Nebenklasse
\(\overline {X^{(q+1)/2}}\) wie gewünscht.
Satz (Zuverlässigkeit): Seien \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) eine Quadratzahl und \(t \in \FF \) zufällig.
Dann ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass \(t^2 - 4a\) kein Quadrat ist, gleich \(\frac {q-1}{2q}\).
Beweis: \(t^2 - 4a\) ist eine Quadratzahl genau dann, wenn \(X^2 - tX + a\) in Linearfaktoren zerfällt, d. h. wenn \(\exists _{\alpha , \beta \in \FF }\; X^2 - tX + a = (X - \alpha )(X
- \beta )\). Das ist äquivalent zu \(\exists _{\alpha , \beta \in \FF }\; a = \alpha \beta ,\; t = \alpha + \beta \). Man geht daher alle Paare \(\alpha , \beta \in \FF \) mit \(\alpha \beta = a\)
durch (ohne Berücksichtigung der Reihenfolge) und zählt die verschiedenen Summen \(\alpha + \beta \), um die Anzahl der \(t \in \FF \) mit \(t^2 - 4a\) Quadratzahl zu erhalten. Es gibt zwei
Fälle:
\(\alpha = \beta \): Dieser Fall tritt genau zwei Mal auf, da \(\alpha \) dann eine Wurzel von \(a\) ist, d. h. es gibt nur die Möglichkeiten \(\alpha = \sqrt {a} = \beta \) und \(\alpha =
-\sqrt {a} = \beta \). Man erhält als Summe \(\alpha + \beta = \pm 2\sqrt {a}\). Das sind zwei verschiedene Werte, denn sonst wäre (in \(\FF \) gilt \(4 \not = 0\))
\(4\sqrt {a} = 0 \iff \sqrt {a} = 0 \iff a = 0\), ein Widerspruch zu \(a \in \FF ^\ast \).
\(\alpha \not = \beta \): Dieser Fall tritt ein genau dann, wenn \(\alpha , \beta \in \FF ^\ast \setminus \{\pm \sqrt {a}\}\). Sei \(\beta \in \FF ^\ast \setminus \{\pm \sqrt {a}\}\)
vorgegeben. Dann ist \(\alpha \) eindeutig bestimmt durch \(\alpha = a\beta ^{-1}\). Weil es \((q - 3)\)-viele Möglichkeiten für \(\beta \) gibt, gibt es \(\frac {q-3}{2}\)-viele
Möglichkeiten für \(\{\alpha , \beta \}\). (Warum ist \(\alpha + \beta \) für jede dieser Möglichkeiten verschieden?)
Man erhält also \(2 + \frac {q-3}{2} = \frac {q+1}{2}\) Möglichkeiten für \(t \in \FF \), damit \(t^2 - 4a\) eine Quadratzahl ist, bzw. \(1 - \frac {q+1}{2} = \frac {q-1}{2}\)
Möglichkeiten, damit \(t^4 - 4a\) kein Quadrat ist.
Laufzeit: \(\O (\log q)\) Körperoperationen, nachdem \(t\) gefunden wurde
Algorithmus von Tonelli
Motivation: Sei \(\FF \) ein Körper mit \(q := |\FF |\) ungerade, wobei \(\ell \in \natural \) und \(u \in \natural \) ungerade mit \(q - 1 = 2^\ell u\). Definiere \(G_i := \{g \in \FF ^\ast
\;|\; g^{2^i u} = 1\}\) für \(i = 0, \dotsc , \ell \). Aus Algebra weiß man, dass \(G_i \le \FF ^\ast \) eine zyklische Untergruppe mit \(|G_i| = 2^i u\) ist: Ist nämlich \(x \in \FF ^\ast \)
ein Erzeuger von \(\FF ^\ast \), dann ist \(x^{2^{\ell -i}} = x^{(q-1)/(2^i u)}\) ein Erzeuger von \(G_i\). Genauer gilt sogar \(G_0 \le \dotsb \le G_\ell = \FF ^\ast \) mit \([G_i : G_{i-1}] = \frac
{|G_i|}{|G_{i-1}|} = 2\). Insbesondere ist \(G_{i-1}\) in \(G_i\) ein Normalteiler, d. h. \(G_0 \vartriangleleft \dotsb \vartriangleleft G_\ell = \FF ^\ast \).
Seien nun \(i \in \{1, \dotsc , \ell \}\) und \(g \in \FF ^\ast \) keine Quadratzahl, also nach Euler \(g^{2^{\ell -1}u} = g^{(q-1)/2} = -1\).
Lemma 1: Für \(h \in G_{\ell -i-1}\) ist \(g^{2^i} h \in G_{\ell -i} \setminus G_{\ell -i-1}\). Für \(h \in G_{\ell -i} \setminus G_{\ell -i-1}\) ist \(g^{2^i} h \in G_{\ell
-i-1}\).
Beweis: Ist \(h \in G_{\ell -i-1}\), so ist \(g^{2^i} h \in G_{\ell -i} \setminus G_{\ell -i-1}\), weil \(g^{2^i}, h \in G_{\ell -i}\) (da \((g^{2^i})^{2^{\ell -i} u} = g^{2^\ell u} = 1\)), aber
\(g^{2^i} \notin G_{\ell -i-1}\), weil \((g^{2^i})^{2^{\ell -i-1} u} = g^{2^{\ell -1} u} = -1 \not = 1\).
Umgekehrt folgt aus \(h \in G_{\ell -i} \setminus G_{\ell -i-1}\), dass \(g^{2^i} h \in G_{\ell -i-1}\), weil \((g^{2^i} h)^{2^{\ell -i-1} u} = g^{2^{\ell -1} u} h^{2^{\ell -i-1} u}\) und \(g^{2^{\ell
-1} u} = -1\) sowie \(h^{2^{\ell -i-1} u} = -1\) (es gilt \((h^{2^{\ell -i-1} u})^2 = h^{2^{\ell -i} u} = 1\) wegen \(h \in G_{\ell -i}\), d. h. \(h^{2^{\ell -i-1} u} = \pm 1\), aber \(h^{2^{\ell
-i-1} u} = +1\) ist wegen \(h \notin G_{\ell -i-1}\) nicht möglich).
Lemma 2: \(G_{\ell -i}/G_{\ell -i-1} \subset \erzeugnis {gG_{\ell -i-1}}\)
Beweis: Für \(hG_{\ell -i-1} \in G_{\ell -i}/G_{\ell -i-1}\) gilt \(hG_{\ell -i-1} = G_{\ell -i-1}\) oder \(hG_{\ell -i-1} = G_{\ell -i} \setminus G_{\ell -i-1}\) und im zweiten Fall gilt
\(G_{\ell -i} \setminus G_{\ell -i-1} = g^{2^i} G_{\ell -i-1}\) nach dem vorherigen Lemma.
Lemma 3: Für alle \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) gibt es \(h \in G_0\) und \(k \in \natural _0\) mit \(a = g^k h\).
Ist \(a\) zusätzlich eine Quadratzahl, dann ist \(k\) gerade.
Beweis: Sei \(a \in \FF ^\ast = G_\ell \), dann gilt \(aG_{\ell -1} \in G_\ell /G_{\ell -1} \subset \erzeugnis {gG_{\ell -1}}\), d. h. es gibt ein \(m_1 \in \natural _0\) mit \(a G_{\ell -1}
= g^{m_1} G_{\ell -1}\) bzw. \(ag^{-m_1} \in G_{\ell -1}\). Damit gilt \(ag^{-m_1} G_{\ell -2} \in G_{\ell -1}/G_{\ell -2} \subset \erzeugnis {gG_{\ell -2}}\), d. h. es gibt \(m_2 \in \natural
_0\) mit \(ag^{-m_1} G_{\ell -2} = g^{m_2} G_{\ell -2}\) bzw. \(ag^{-m_1-m_2} \in G_{\ell -2}\) usw. Induktiv erhält man, dass es für jedes \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) ein \(k \in \natural _0\) gibt
mit \(a = g^k h\) und \(h \in G_0\). (Darauf kommt man auch direkt, wenn man weiß, dass \(G_0 \vartriangleleft \FF ^\ast \) sowie \(\FF ^\ast /G_0\) zyklisch ist und von \(gG_0\) erzeugt wird.)
Ist \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) eine Quadratzahl, dann gilt nach Euler
\(1 = a^{(q-1)/2} = a^{2^{\ell -1} u} = (g^k h)^{2^{\ell -1} u} = (g^{2^{\ell -1} u})^k (h^u)^{2^{\ell -1}} = (-1)^k\)
(\(g^{2^{\ell -1} u} = -1\) nach Euler und \(h^u = 1\) wegen \(h \in G_0\)), d. h. \(k\) ist gerade.
Idee: Schreibe die Quadratzahl \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) als \(a = g^k h\) und ziehe getrennt Wurzeln aus \(g^k\) und \(h\).
Es gilt \(\sqrt {g^k} = g^{k/2}\) wg. \(k\) gerade und \(\sqrt {h} = h^{(|G_0|+1)/2} = h^{(u+1)/2}\) wg. \(h \in G_0\) mit \(|G_0| = u\) ungerade.
Bestimmung von \(k\): Schreibe \(k\) in Binärdarstellung \(k = \sum _{j=0}^{\ell -1} k_j 2^j\) mit \(k_0, \dotsc , k_{\ell -1} \in \{0, 1\}\). Dann bestimmt man für \(i = 1, \dotsc
, \ell \) den Koeffizienten \(k_{i-1}\) aus \(k_0, \dotsc , k_{i-2}\) wie folgt: Wegen \(h^u = 1\) gilt \(1 = h^{2^{\ell -i}u} = (ag^{-k})^{2^{\ell -i}u} = a^{2^{\ell -i}u} g^{-2^{\ell -i} u \sum
_{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j} \cdot [g^{-2^{\ell -i} u \sum _{j=i}^{\ell -1} k_j 2^j}]\). Es gilt \([\cdots ] = 1\), weil \(g^{2^\ell u} = 1\). Damit erhält man \(1 = (ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j
2^j})^{2^{\ell -i} u}\), d. h. \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j} \in G_{\ell -i}\). Analog gilt \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-2} k_j 2^j} \in G_{\ell -i+1}\). Gilt bereits \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-2} k_j
2^j} \in G_{\ell -i}\), so wählt man \(k_{i-1} := 0\), andernfalls wählt man \(k_{i-1} := 1\) (nach Lemma 1 ist dann \((g^{-k_{i-1}})^{2^{i-1}} ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-2} k_j 2^j} =
ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j} \in G_{\ell -i}\)). Die Wahl ist eindeutig (würde man \(k_{i-1} := 1\) im ersten Fall wählen, dann wäre das Ergebnis in \(G_{\ell -i+1} \setminus
G_{\ell -i}\) nach Lemma 1).
Algorithmus von Tonelli: Seien \(\FF \) ein Körper mit \(q := |\FF |\) ungerade und \(a \in \FF ^\ast \) eine Quadratzahl. Der Algorithmus von Tonelli bestimmt die Wurzel von \(a\) in \(\FF \) wie folgt:
Wähle \(g \in \FF ^\ast \) zufällig mit \(g\) keine Quadratzahl.
Bestimme sukzessive \(k_0, \dotsc , k_{\ell -1}\) mit \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j} \in G_{\ell -i}\).
Setze \(k := \sum _{j=0}^{\ell -1} k_j 2^j\) und \(h := ag^{-k}\).
Gebe \(g^{k/2} h^{(u+1)/2}\) als Wurzel von \(a\) aus.
Satz (Korrektheit): Der Algorithmus arbeitet korrekt, d. h. \((g^{k/2} h^{(u+1)/2})^2 = a\).
Beweis: Nach obiger Bemerkung ist für \(i = 1, \dotsc , \ell \) die Wahl von \(k_{i-1}\) aus \(0, \dotsc , k_{i-2}\) eindeutig durch den Test „\(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-2} k_j 2^j} \overset
{?}{\in } G_{\ell -i}\)“ bestimmt und es gilt \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j} \in G_{\ell -i}\). Insbesondere gilt \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{\ell -1} k_j 2^j} = ag^{-k} =: h \in G_0\), wobei \(|G_0| = u\)
ungerade ist.
Damit ist \((g^{k/2} h^{(u+1)/2})^2 = g^k h^{u+1} = g^k h = a\).
Laufzeit: \(\O (\ell \log q) \subset \O (\log ^2 q)\) Körperoperationen, nachdem \(g\) gefunden wurde
Shanks’ Trick: ersetze \(g\) durch \(g’ := g^u\)
(\(g’\) ist ebenfalls keine Quadratzahl, da \((g^u)^{(q-1)/2} = (g^{(q-1)/2})^u = (-1)^u = -1\)),
dann gilt \(ag^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j} \in G_{\ell -i} \iff (c (g’)^{-\sum _{j=0}^{i-1} k_j 2^j})^{2^{\ell -i}} = 1\) mit \(c := a^u\) (Überprüfung mit \(\O (\ell )\) Operationen
möglich), die Gesamtlaufzeit beträgt dann \(\O (\ell ^2 + \log q)\)