\(\newcommand{\footnotename}{footnote}\)
\(\def \LWRfootnote {1}\)
\(\newcommand {\footnote }[2][\LWRfootnote ]{{}^{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\footnotemark }[1][\LWRfootnote ]{{}^{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand \ensuremath [1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRframebox }[2][]{\fbox {#2}} \newcommand {\framebox }[1][]{\LWRframebox } \)
\(\newcommand {\setlength }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\addtolength }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\setcounter }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\addtocounter }[2]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\cline }[1]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\directlua }[1]{\text {(directlua)}}\)
\(\newcommand {\luatexdirectlua }[1]{\text {(directlua)}}\)
\(\newcommand {\protect }{}\)
\(\def \LWRabsorbnumber #1 {}\)
\(\def \LWRabsorbquotenumber "#1 {}\)
\(\def \mathchar {\ifnextchar "\LWRabsorbquotenumber \LWRabsorbnumber }\)
\(\def \mathcode #1={\mathchar }\)
\(\let \delcode \mathcode \)
\(\let \delimiter \mathchar \)
\(\let \LWRref \ref \)
\(\renewcommand {\ref }{\ifstar \LWRref \LWRref }\)
\(\newcommand {\intertext }[1]{\text {#1}\notag \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathllap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathrlap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathclap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathmbox }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\clap }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmathmakebox }[2][]{#2}\)
\(\newcommand {\mathmakebox }[1][]{\LWRmathmakebox }\)
\(\newcommand {\cramped }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedllap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedrlap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedclap }[2][]{{#1#2}}\)
\(\newenvironment {crampedsubarray}[1]{}{}\)
\(\newcommand {\crampedsubstack }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\smashoperator }[2][]{#2\limits }\)
\(\newcommand {\adjustlimits }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\SwapAboveDisplaySkip }{}\)
\(\require {extpfeil}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftrightarrow {10,10}{0x2194}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xLeftarrow {10,10}{0x21d0}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xhookleftarrow {10,10}{0x21a9}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xmapsto {10,10}{0x21a6}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xRightarrow {10,10}{0x21d2}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xLeftrightarrow {10,10}{0x21d4}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xhookrightarrow {10,10}{0x21aa}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightharpoondown {10,10}{0x21c1}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftharpoondown {10,10}{0x21bd}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightleftharpoons {10,10}{0x21cc}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xrightharpoonup {10,10}{0x21c0}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftharpoonup {10,10}{0x21bc}\)
\(\Newextarrow \xleftrightharpoons {10,10}{0x21cb}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRdounderbracket }[3]{\underset {#3}{\underline {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRunderbracket }[2][]{\LWRdounderbracket {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\underbracket }[1][]{\LWRunderbracket }\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRdooverbracket }[3]{\overset {#3}{\overline {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRoverbracket }[2][]{\LWRdooverbracket {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\overbracket }[1][]{\LWRoverbracket }\)
\(\newcommand {\LATEXunderbrace }[1]{\underbrace {#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LATEXoverbrace }[1]{\overbrace {#1}}\)
\(\newenvironment {matrix*}[1][]{\begin {matrix}}{\end {matrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {pmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {smallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {matrix}}{\end {matrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {psmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vsmallmatrix*}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {psmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {pmatrix}}{\end {pmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {bsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {bmatrix}}{\end {bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Bsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {Bmatrix}}{\end {Bmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {vsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {vmatrix}}{\end {vmatrix}}\)
\(\newenvironment {Vsmallmatrix}[1][]{\begin {Vmatrix}}{\end {Vmatrix}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmultlined }[1][]{\begin {multline*}}\)
\(\newenvironment {multlined}[1][]{\LWRmultlined }{\end {multline*}}\)
\(\let \LWRorigshoveleft \shoveleft \)
\(\renewcommand {\shoveleft }[1][]{\LWRorigshoveleft }\)
\(\let \LWRorigshoveright \shoveright \)
\(\renewcommand {\shoveright }[1][]{\LWRorigshoveright }\)
\(\newenvironment {dcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {dcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {drcases}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {drcases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newenvironment {cases*}{\begin {cases}}{\end {cases}}\)
\(\newcommand {\MoveEqLeft }[1][]{}\)
\(\def \LWRAboxed #1!|!{\fbox {\(#1\)}&\fbox {\(#2\)}} \newcommand {\Aboxed }[1]{\LWRAboxed #1&&!|!} \)
\( \newcommand {\LWRABLines }[1][\Updownarrow ]{#1 \notag \\}\newcommand {\ArrowBetweenLines }{\ifstar \LWRABLines \LWRABLines } \)
\(\newcommand {\shortintertext }[1]{\text {#1}\notag \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\vdotswithin }[1]{\hspace {.5em}\vdots }\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRshortvdotswithinstar }[1]{\vdots \hspace {.5em} & \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRshortvdotswithinnostar }[1]{& \hspace {.5em}\vdots \\}\)
\(\newcommand {\shortvdotswithin }{\ifstar \LWRshortvdotswithinstar \LWRshortvdotswithinnostar }\)
\(\newcommand {\MTFlushSpaceAbove }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\MTFlushSpaceBelow }{\\}\)
\(\newcommand \lparen {(}\)
\(\newcommand \rparen {)}\)
\(\newcommand {\ordinarycolon }{:}\)
\(\newcommand {\vcentcolon }{\mathrel {\mathop \ordinarycolon }}\)
\(\newcommand \dblcolon {\vcentcolon \vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \coloneqq {\vcentcolon =}\)
\(\newcommand \Coloneqq {\dblcolon =}\)
\(\newcommand \coloneq {\vcentcolon {-}}\)
\(\newcommand \Coloneq {\dblcolon {-}}\)
\(\newcommand \eqqcolon {=\vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \Eqqcolon {=\dblcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \eqcolon {\mathrel {-}\vcentcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \Eqcolon {\mathrel {-}\dblcolon }\)
\(\newcommand \colonapprox {\vcentcolon \approx }\)
\(\newcommand \Colonapprox {\dblcolon \approx }\)
\(\newcommand \colonsim {\vcentcolon \sim }\)
\(\newcommand \Colonsim {\dblcolon \sim }\)
\(\newcommand {\nuparrow }{\mathrel {\cancel {\uparrow }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ndownarrow }{\mathrel {\cancel {\downarrow }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\bigtimes }{\mathop {\Large \times }\limits }\)
\(\newcommand {\prescript }[3]{{}^{#1}_{#2}#3}\)
\(\newenvironment {lgathered}{\begin {gathered}}{\end {gathered}}\)
\(\newenvironment {rgathered}{\begin {gathered}}{\end {gathered}}\)
\(\newcommand {\splitfrac }[2]{{}^{#1}_{#2}}\)
\(\let \splitdfrac \splitfrac \)
\(\newcommand {\LWRoverlaysymbols }[2]{\mathord {\smash {\mathop {#2\strut }\limits ^{\smash {\lower 3ex{#1}}}}\strut }}\)
\(\newcommand{\alphaup}{\unicode{x03B1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\betaup}{\unicode{x03B2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\gammaup}{\unicode{x03B3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\digammaup}{\unicode{x03DD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\deltaup}{\unicode{x03B4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\epsilonup}{\unicode{x03F5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varepsilonup}{\unicode{x03B5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\zetaup}{\unicode{x03B6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\etaup}{\unicode{x03B7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\thetaup}{\unicode{x03B8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varthetaup}{\unicode{x03D1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\iotaup}{\unicode{x03B9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\kappaup}{\unicode{x03BA}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varkappaup}{\unicode{x03F0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\lambdaup}{\unicode{x03BB}}\)
\(\newcommand{\muup}{\unicode{x03BC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\nuup}{\unicode{x03BD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\xiup}{\unicode{x03BE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omicronup}{\unicode{x03BF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\piup}{\unicode{x03C0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varpiup}{\unicode{x03D6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\rhoup}{\unicode{x03C1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varrhoup}{\unicode{x03F1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\sigmaup}{\unicode{x03C3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varsigmaup}{\unicode{x03C2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\tauup}{\unicode{x03C4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\upsilonup}{\unicode{x03C5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\phiup}{\unicode{x03D5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varphiup}{\unicode{x03C6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\chiup}{\unicode{x03C7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\psiup}{\unicode{x03C8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omegaup}{\unicode{x03C9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Alphaup}{\unicode{x0391}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Betaup}{\unicode{x0392}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Gammaup}{\unicode{x0393}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Digammaup}{\unicode{x03DC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Deltaup}{\unicode{x0394}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Epsilonup}{\unicode{x0395}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Zetaup}{\unicode{x0396}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Etaup}{\unicode{x0397}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Thetaup}{\unicode{x0398}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varthetaup}{\unicode{x03F4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Iotaup}{\unicode{x0399}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Kappaup}{\unicode{x039A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Lambdaup}{\unicode{x039B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Muup}{\unicode{x039C}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Nuup}{\unicode{x039D}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Xiup}{\unicode{x039E}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omicronup}{\unicode{x039F}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Piup}{\unicode{x03A0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varpiup}{\unicode{x03D6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Rhoup}{\unicode{x03A1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Sigmaup}{\unicode{x03A3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Tauup}{\unicode{x03A4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Upsilonup}{\unicode{x03A5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Phiup}{\unicode{x03A6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Chiup}{\unicode{x03A7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Psiup}{\unicode{x03A8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omegaup}{\unicode{x03A9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\alphait}{\unicode{x1D6FC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\betait}{\unicode{x1D6FD}}\)
\(\newcommand{\gammait}{\unicode{x1D6FE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\digammait}{\mathit{\unicode{x03DD}}}\)
\(\newcommand{\deltait}{\unicode{x1D6FF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\epsilonit}{\unicode{x1D716}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varepsilonit}{\unicode{x1D700}}\)
\(\newcommand{\zetait}{\unicode{x1D701}}\)
\(\newcommand{\etait}{\unicode{x1D702}}\)
\(\newcommand{\thetait}{\unicode{x1D703}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varthetait}{\unicode{x1D717}}\)
\(\newcommand{\iotait}{\unicode{x1D704}}\)
\(\newcommand{\kappait}{\unicode{x1D705}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varkappait}{\unicode{x1D718}}\)
\(\newcommand{\lambdait}{\unicode{x1D706}}\)
\(\newcommand{\muit}{\unicode{x1D707}}\)
\(\newcommand{\nuit}{\unicode{x1D708}}\)
\(\newcommand{\xiit}{\unicode{x1D709}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omicronit}{\unicode{x1D70A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\piit}{\unicode{x1D70B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varpiit}{\unicode{x1D71B}}\)
\(\newcommand{\rhoit}{\unicode{x1D70C}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varrhoit}{\unicode{x1D71A}}\)
\(\newcommand{\sigmait}{\unicode{x1D70E}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varsigmait}{\unicode{x1D70D}}\)
\(\newcommand{\tauit}{\unicode{x1D70F}}\)
\(\newcommand{\upsilonit}{\unicode{x1D710}}\)
\(\newcommand{\phiit}{\unicode{x1D719}}\)
\(\newcommand{\varphiit}{\unicode{x1D711}}\)
\(\newcommand{\chiit}{\unicode{x1D712}}\)
\(\newcommand{\psiit}{\unicode{x1D713}}\)
\(\newcommand{\omegait}{\unicode{x1D714}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Alphait}{\unicode{x1D6E2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Betait}{\unicode{x1D6E3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Gammait}{\unicode{x1D6E4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Digammait}{\mathit{\unicode{x03DC}}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Deltait}{\unicode{x1D6E5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Epsilonit}{\unicode{x1D6E6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Zetait}{\unicode{x1D6E7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Etait}{\unicode{x1D6E8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Thetait}{\unicode{x1D6E9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Varthetait}{\unicode{x1D6F3}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Iotait}{\unicode{x1D6EA}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Kappait}{\unicode{x1D6EB}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Lambdait}{\unicode{x1D6EC}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Muit}{\unicode{x1D6ED}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Nuit}{\unicode{x1D6EE}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Xiit}{\unicode{x1D6EF}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omicronit}{\unicode{x1D6F0}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Piit}{\unicode{x1D6F1}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Rhoit}{\unicode{x1D6F2}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Sigmait}{\unicode{x1D6F4}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Tauit}{\unicode{x1D6F5}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Upsilonit}{\unicode{x1D6F6}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Phiit}{\unicode{x1D6F7}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Chiit}{\unicode{x1D6F8}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Psiit}{\unicode{x1D6F9}}\)
\(\newcommand{\Omegait}{\unicode{x1D6FA}}\)
\(\let \digammaup \Digammaup \)
\(\renewcommand {\digammait }{\mathit {\digammaup }}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallin }{\unicode {x220A}}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallowns }{\unicode {x220D}}\)
\(\newcommand {\notsmallin }{\LWRoverlaysymbols {/}{\unicode {x220A}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\notsmallowns }{\LWRoverlaysymbols {/}{\unicode {x220D}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\rightangle }{\unicode {x221F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\intclockwise }{\unicode {x2231}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ointclockwise }{\unicode {x2232}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ointctrclockwise }{\unicode {x2233}}\)
\(\newcommand {\oiint }{\unicode {x222F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\oiiint }{\unicode {x2230}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ddag }{\unicode {x2021}}\)
\(\newcommand {\P }{\unicode {x00B6}}\)
\(\newcommand {\copyright }{\unicode {x00A9}}\)
\(\newcommand {\dag }{\unicode {x2020}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pounds }{\unicode {x00A3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\iddots }{\unicode {x22F0}}\)
\(\newcommand {\utimes }{\overline {\times }}\)
\(\newcommand {\dtimes }{\underline {\times }}\)
\(\newcommand {\udtimes }{\overline {\underline {\times }}}\)
\(\newcommand {\leftwave }{\left \{}\)
\(\newcommand {\rightwave }{\right \}}\)
\(\newcommand {\toprule }[1][]{\hline }\)
\(\let \midrule \toprule \)
\(\let \bottomrule \toprule \)
\(\newcommand {\cmidrule }[2][]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\morecmidrules }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\specialrule }[3]{\hline }\)
\(\newcommand {\addlinespace }[1][]{}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRsubmultirow }[2][]{#2}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRmultirow }[2][]{\LWRsubmultirow }\)
\(\newcommand {\multirow }[2][]{\LWRmultirow }\)
\(\newcommand {\mrowcell }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\mcolrowcell }{}\)
\(\newcommand {\STneed }[1]{}\)
\( \newcommand {\multicolumn }[3]{#3}\)
\(\newcommand {\tothe }[1]{^{#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\raiseto }[2]{{#2}^{#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ang }[2][]{(\mathrm {#2})\degree }\)
\(\newcommand {\num }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\si }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\LWRSI }[2][]{\mathrm {#1\LWRSInumber \,#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SI }[2][]{\def \LWRSInumber {#2}\LWRSI }\)
\(\newcommand {\numlist }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\numrange }[3][]{\mathrm {#2\,\unicode {x2013}\,#3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SIlist }[3][]{\mathrm {#2\,#3}}\)
\(\newcommand {\SIrange }[4][]{\mathrm {#2\,#4\,\unicode {x2013}\,#3\,#4}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tablenum }[2][]{\mathrm {#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ampere }{\mathrm {A}}\)
\(\newcommand {\candela }{\mathrm {cd}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kelvin }{\mathrm {K}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kilogram }{\mathrm {kg}}\)
\(\newcommand {\metre }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mole }{\mathrm {mol}}\)
\(\newcommand {\second }{\mathrm {s}}\)
\(\newcommand {\becquerel }{\mathrm {Bq}}\)
\(\newcommand {\degreeCelsius }{\unicode {x2103}}\)
\(\newcommand {\coulomb }{\mathrm {C}}\)
\(\newcommand {\farad }{\mathrm {F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gray }{\mathrm {Gy}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hertz }{\mathrm {Hz}}\)
\(\newcommand {\henry }{\mathrm {H}}\)
\(\newcommand {\joule }{\mathrm {J}}\)
\(\newcommand {\katal }{\mathrm {kat}}\)
\(\newcommand {\lumen }{\mathrm {lm}}\)
\(\newcommand {\lux }{\mathrm {lx}}\)
\(\newcommand {\newton }{\mathrm {N}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ohm }{\mathrm {\Omega }}\)
\(\newcommand {\pascal }{\mathrm {Pa}}\)
\(\newcommand {\radian }{\mathrm {rad}}\)
\(\newcommand {\siemens }{\mathrm {S}}\)
\(\newcommand {\sievert }{\mathrm {Sv}}\)
\(\newcommand {\steradian }{\mathrm {sr}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tesla }{\mathrm {T}}\)
\(\newcommand {\volt }{\mathrm {V}}\)
\(\newcommand {\watt }{\mathrm {W}}\)
\(\newcommand {\weber }{\mathrm {Wb}}\)
\(\newcommand {\day }{\mathrm {d}}\)
\(\newcommand {\degree }{\mathrm {^\circ }}\)
\(\newcommand {\hectare }{\mathrm {ha}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hour }{\mathrm {h}}\)
\(\newcommand {\litre }{\mathrm {l}}\)
\(\newcommand {\liter }{\mathrm {L}}\)
\(\newcommand {\arcminute }{^\prime }\)
\(\newcommand {\minute }{\mathrm {min}}\)
\(\newcommand {\arcsecond }{^{\prime \prime }}\)
\(\newcommand {\tonne }{\mathrm {t}}\)
\(\newcommand {\astronomicalunit }{au}\)
\(\newcommand {\atomicmassunit }{u}\)
\(\newcommand {\bohr }{\mathit {a}_0}\)
\(\newcommand {\clight }{\mathit {c}_0}\)
\(\newcommand {\dalton }{\mathrm {D}_\mathrm {a}}\)
\(\newcommand {\electronmass }{\mathit {m}_{\mathrm {e}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\electronvolt }{\mathrm {eV}}\)
\(\newcommand {\elementarycharge }{\mathit {e}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hartree }{\mathit {E}_{\mathrm {h}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\planckbar }{\mathit {\unicode {x210F}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\angstrom }{\mathrm {\unicode {x212B}}}\)
\(\let \LWRorigbar \bar \)
\(\newcommand {\bar }{\mathrm {bar}}\)
\(\newcommand {\barn }{\mathrm {b}}\)
\(\newcommand {\bel }{\mathrm {B}}\)
\(\newcommand {\decibel }{\mathrm {dB}}\)
\(\newcommand {\knot }{\mathrm {kn}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mmHg }{\mathrm {mmHg}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nauticalmile }{\mathrm {M}}\)
\(\newcommand {\neper }{\mathrm {Np}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yocto }{\mathrm {y}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zepto }{\mathrm {z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\atto }{\mathrm {a}}\)
\(\newcommand {\femto }{\mathrm {f}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pico }{\mathrm {p}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nano }{\mathrm {n}}\)
\(\newcommand {\micro }{\mathrm {\unicode {x00B5}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\milli }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\centi }{\mathrm {c}}\)
\(\newcommand {\deci }{\mathrm {d}}\)
\(\newcommand {\deca }{\mathrm {da}}\)
\(\newcommand {\hecto }{\mathrm {h}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kilo }{\mathrm {k}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mega }{\mathrm {M}}\)
\(\newcommand {\giga }{\mathrm {G}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tera }{\mathrm {T}}\)
\(\newcommand {\peta }{\mathrm {P}}\)
\(\newcommand {\exa }{\mathrm {E}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zetta }{\mathrm {Z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yotta }{\mathrm {Y}}\)
\(\newcommand {\percent }{\mathrm {\%}}\)
\(\newcommand {\meter }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\metre }{\mathrm {m}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gram }{\mathrm {g}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kg }{\kilo \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\of }[1]{_{\mathrm {#1}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\squared }{^2}\)
\(\newcommand {\square }[1]{\mathrm {#1}^2}\)
\(\newcommand {\cubed }{^3}\)
\(\newcommand {\cubic }[1]{\mathrm {#1}^3}\)
\(\newcommand {\per }{/}\)
\(\newcommand {\celsius }{\unicode {x2103}}\)
\(\newcommand {\fg }{\femto \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\pg }{\pico \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\ng }{\nano \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\ug }{\micro \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\mg }{\milli \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\g }{\gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\kg }{\kilo \gram }\)
\(\newcommand {\amu }{\mathrm {u}}\)
\(\newcommand {\nm }{\nano \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\um }{\micro \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\mm }{\milli \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\cm }{\centi \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\dm }{\deci \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\m }{\metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\km }{\kilo \metre }\)
\(\newcommand {\as }{\atto \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\fs }{\femto \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ps }{\pico \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ns }{\nano \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\us }{\micro \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\ms }{\milli \second }\)
\(\newcommand {\s }{\second }\)
\(\newcommand {\fmol }{\femto \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\pmol }{\pico \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\nmol }{\nano \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\umol }{\micro \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\mmol }{\milli \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\mol }{\mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\kmol }{\kilo \mol }\)
\(\newcommand {\pA }{\pico \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\nA }{\nano \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\uA }{\micro \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\mA }{\milli \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\A }{\ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\kA }{\kilo \ampere }\)
\(\newcommand {\ul }{\micro \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\ml }{\milli \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\l }{\litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\hl }{\hecto \litre }\)
\(\newcommand {\uL }{\micro \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\mL }{\milli \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\L }{\liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\hL }{\hecto \liter }\)
\(\newcommand {\mHz }{\milli \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\Hz }{\hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\kHz }{\kilo \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\MHz }{\mega \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\GHz }{\giga \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\THz }{\tera \hertz }\)
\(\newcommand {\mN }{\milli \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\N }{\newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\kN }{\kilo \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\MN }{\mega \newton }\)
\(\newcommand {\Pa }{\pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\kPa }{\kilo \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\MPa }{\mega \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\GPa }{\giga \pascal }\)
\(\newcommand {\mohm }{\milli \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\kohm }{\kilo \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\Mohm }{\mega \ohm }\)
\(\newcommand {\pV }{\pico \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\nV }{\nano \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\uV }{\micro \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\mV }{\milli \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\V }{\volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kV }{\kilo \volt }\)
\(\newcommand {\W }{\watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\uW }{\micro \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\mW }{\milli \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kW }{\kilo \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\MW }{\mega \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\GW }{\giga \watt }\)
\(\newcommand {\J }{\joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\uJ }{\micro \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\mJ }{\milli \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\kJ }{\kilo \joule }\)
\(\newcommand {\eV }{\electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\meV }{\milli \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\keV }{\kilo \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\MeV }{\mega \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\GeV }{\giga \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\TeV }{\tera \electronvolt }\)
\(\newcommand {\kWh }{\kilo \watt \hour }\)
\(\newcommand {\F }{\farad }\)
\(\newcommand {\fF }{\femto \farad }\)
\(\newcommand {\pF }{\pico \farad }\)
\(\newcommand {\K }{\mathrm {K}}\)
\(\newcommand {\dB }{\mathrm {dB}}\)
\(\newcommand {\kibi }{\mathrm {Ki}}\)
\(\newcommand {\mebi }{\mathrm {Mi}}\)
\(\newcommand {\gibi }{\mathrm {Gi}}\)
\(\newcommand {\tebi }{\mathrm {Ti}}\)
\(\newcommand {\pebi }{\mathrm {Pi}}\)
\(\newcommand {\exbi }{\mathrm {Ei}}\)
\(\newcommand {\zebi }{\mathrm {Zi}}\)
\(\newcommand {\yobi }{\mathrm {Yi}}\)
\(\require {mhchem}\)
\(\require {cancel}\)
\(\newcommand {\fint }{âĺŊ}\)
\(\newcommand {\hdots }{\cdots }\)
\(\newcommand {\mathnormal }[1]{#1}\)
\(\newcommand {\vecs }[2]{\vec {#1}_{#2}}\)
\(\newcommand {\BB }{\mathbb {B}}\)
\(\newcommand {\EE }{\mathbb {E}}\)
\(\newcommand {\FF }{\mathbb {F}}\)
\(\newcommand {\KK }{\mathbb {K}}\)
\(\newcommand {\PP }{\mathbb {P}}\)
\(\renewcommand {\O }{\mathcal {O}}\)
\(\newcommand {\weakO }{\widetilde {\mathcal {O}}}\)
\(\newcommand {\teilt }{\mid }\)
\(\newcommand {\notteilt }{\nmid }\)
\(\newcommand {\ggT }{\operatorname {ggT}}\)
\(\newcommand {\Char }{\operatorname {char}}\)
\(\newcommand {\Rang }{\operatorname {Rang}}\)
\(\newcommand {\ZkZ }{\integer /k\integer }\)
\(\newcommand {\ZmZ }{\integer /m\integer }\)
\(\newcommand {\ZnZ }{\integer /n\integer }\)
\(\newcommand {\ZpZ }{\integer /p\integer }\)
\(\newcommand {\ZqZ }{\integer /q\integer }\)
\(\newcommand {\iu }{\mathrm {i}}\)
\(\newcommand {\xor }{\oplus }\)
\(\newcommand {\bigxor }{\bigoplus }\)
\(\newcommand {\IP }{\operatorname {IP}}\)
\(\newcommand {\PC }{\operatorname {PC}}\)
\(\newcommand {\DES }{\operatorname {DES}}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallbullet }{{\scriptstyle \bullet }}\)
\(\newcommand {\ord }{\operatorname {ord}}\)
\(\newcommand {\erzeugnis }[1]{\langle #1\rangle }\)
\(\newcommand {\true }{\texttt {true}}\)
\(\newcommand {\false }{\texttt {false}}\)
\(\renewcommand {\div }{\operatorname {div}}\)
\(\newcommand {\Pic }{\operatorname {Pic}}\)
\(\newcommand {\code }[1]{\texttt {#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\name }[1]{\textsc {#1}}\)
\(\newcommand {\smallpmatrix }[1]{\left (\begin {smallmatrix}#1\end {smallmatrix}\right )}\)
\(\newcommand {\matlab }{{\fontfamily {bch}\scshape \selectfont {}Matlab}}\)
\(\newcommand {\innerproduct }[1]{\left \langle {#1}\right \rangle }\)
\(\newcommand {\norm }[1]{\left \Vert {#1}\right \Vert }\)
\(\renewcommand {\natural }{\mathbb {N}}\)
\(\newcommand {\integer }{\mathbb {Z}}\)
\(\newcommand {\rational }{\mathbb {Q}}\)
\(\newcommand {\real }{\mathbb {R}}\)
\(\newcommand {\complex }{\mathbb {C}}\)
\(\renewcommand {\d }{\mathop {}\!\mathrm {d}}\)
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\(\newcommand {\ds }{\d {}s}\)
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\(\newcommand {\dphi }{\d {}\phi }\)
\(\newcommand {\dvarphi }{\d {}\varphi }\)
\(\newcommand {\dtau }{\d {}\tau }\)
\(\newcommand {\dxi }{\d {}\xi }\)
\(\newcommand {\dtheta }{\d {}\theta }\)
\(\newcommand {\tp }{\mathrm {T}}\)
iterierter Logarithmus: Sei \(n \in \natural \). Dann ist der iterierte Logarithmus definiert durch \(\log ^\ast n := 1 + \log ^\ast (\log n)\) für \(n
> 1\) und \(\log ^\ast n := 0\) für \(n < 1\). Der iterierte Logarithmus ist die Anzahl, wie oft man den Logarithmus auf eine Zahl anwenden kann, bis sie negativ wird. \(\log ^\ast \) wächst sehr
langsam (allerdings schneller als die inverse Ackermann-Funktion), für \(n < 2^{65536}\) gilt \(\log _2^\ast n \le 5\).
\(\weakO \)-Notation: Seien \(f, g\colon \natural \rightarrow \real \) zwei Funktionen.
Dann ist \(f \in \weakO (g(n))\) (Weak-\(\O \), \(\O \)-Tilde), falls \(\exists _{k \in \natural }\; f \in \O (g(n)
\cdot \log ^k g(n))\).
Multiplikation
Problem: Gegeben sind zwei Zahlen \(r, s \in \natural \) mit je \(n\) Bit.
Gesucht ist das Produkt \(r \cdot s\) der beiden Zahlen.
Algorithmen und ihr Zeitbedarf:
Schulmethode (schriftliches Multiplizieren): \(\O (n^2)\)
Karatsuba-Algorithmus: \(\O (n^{1.58497})\) mit \(1.58497 \approx \log _2 3\)
Schönhage-Strassen-Algorithmus: \(O(n \log n \cdot \log \log n) \subset \weakO (n)\)
Fürer-Algorithmus: \(\O (n \log n \cdot 2^{\log ^\ast n}) \subset \weakO (n)\)
Karatsuba-Algorithmus: Der Karatsuba-Algorithmus ist ein rekursiver Algorithmus zur Multiplikation
zweier Ganzzahlen. Seien \(r, s\) zwei Zahlen mit je \(n = 2k\) Bit.
Berechne zunächst \(0 \le A, B, C, D < 2^k\) mit \(r = A \cdot 2^k + B\) und \(s = C \cdot 2^k + D\).
Berechne rekursiv \(AC\), \(BD\) und \((A + B)(C + D)\).
Berechne \(r \cdot s = AC \cdot 2^{2k} + (A + B)(C + D) \cdot 2^k - (AC + BD) \cdot 2^k + BD\).
Laufzeit: \(\O (n^{\log _2 3})\)
Beweis: Würde man \(r \cdot s = AC \cdot 2^{2k} + (AD + BC) \cdot 2^k + BD\) schreiben, so müsste man vier Multiplikationen durchführen. Ist \(T(2k)\) die Anzahl der Schritte,
die der Algorithmus für die Multiplikation zweier Zahlen der Länge \(n = 2k\) benötigt, so gilt dann \(T(2k) = 4T(k) + \O (k)\) (die Additionen benötigen \(\O (k)\) Schritte). Mit dem
Master-Theorem würde man auf \(T \in \Theta (n^2)\) kommen, was keine Verbesserung gegenüber der Schulmethode wäre.
Weil allerdings nur drei Multiplikationen pro Rekursionsschritt durchgeführt werden, gilt
\(T(2k) = 3T(k) + \O (k)\) und mit dem Master-Theorem kommt man auf \(T \in \Theta (n^{\log _2 3})\).
Modulo-Operation
Modulo-Operation: Es gilt \(a \bmod m = a - m \left \lfloor \frac {a}{m}\right \rfloor \), d. h. wenn man schnell Dividieren und Multiplizieren kann, kann man auch schnell Modulo rechnen.
Laufzeit: \(\weakO (n)\) mit \(n\) der Anzahl der Bit von \(\max (a, m)\)
Division
Problem: Gegeben ist \(m \in \natural \) mit \(n\) Bit. Gesucht ist \(\frac {1}{m}\).
Newton-Verfahren zur Berechnung von \(\frac {1}{m}\):
Der Startwert ist \(x_0 := 2^{-\lceil \log m \rceil }\), wobei \(\lceil \log m \rceil \) ca. gleich der Anzahl der Stellen von \(m\) und daher leicht bestimmbar ist.
Suche mit dem Newton-Verfahren die Nullstelle von \(f(x) = \frac {1}{x} - m\), d. h.
\(x_{i+1} := x_i - \frac {f(x_i)}{f’(x_i)} = 2x_i - mx_i^2\).
Laufzeit: \(\weakO (n)\)
Reduktion von Multiplikation auf Quadrieren: Multiplizieren ist im Wesentlichen genauso schwer wie Quadrieren, da \(r \cdot s = \frac {1}{4} ((r + s)^2 - (r - s)^2)\). Mit dieser Formel kann man mit
zweimal Quadrieren einmal Multiplizieren, d. h. Quadrieren geht höchstens doppelt so schnell wie Multiplikation.
Erweiterter euklidischer Algorithmus
Problem: Gegeben seien \(k, \ell \in \integer \), wobei die kleinere Zahl \(n\) Bit lang ist.
Gesucht sind \(a, b \in \integer \) und \(t \in \natural _0\) mit \(ak + b\ell = t = \ggT (k, \ell )\).
erweiterter euklidischer Algorithmus: Der erweiterte euklidische Algorithmus
\(\code {erw\_ggT}(k, \ell )\) berechnet \((a, b, t)\) für \(k, \ell \ge 0\). Ist \(k < 0\), so muss am Ende das Vorzeichen von \(a\) verändert werden (analog für \(\ell < 0\)).
Ist \(k = 0\), so gebe \((0, 1, \ell )\) zurück.
Sonst berechne \((a, b, t) := \code {erw\_ggT}(\ell \bmod k, k)\) und gebe \((b - a \cdot \lfloor \ell /k \rfloor , a, t)\) zurück.
Laufzeit: \(\weakO (n^2)\)
Beweis: Ist \(k > \ell \), dann vertauscht der Algorithmus im ersten Rekursionsschritt \(k\) und \(\ell \). Sei also oBdA \(k \le \ell \). Der Algorithmus ruft sich mit \(k’ := \ell \bmod k\) und \(\ell ’ :=
k\) auf. Im nächsten Schritt ruft er sich mit \(k’’ := \ell ’ \bmod k’ = k \bmod (\ell \bmod k)\) und \(\ell ’’ := k’ = \ell \bmod k\) auf.
Ist \(\ell \bmod k \le \frac {k}{2}\), so ist \(k’’ < \ell \bmod k \le \frac {k}{2}\).
Ist \(\ell \bmod k > \frac {k}{2}\), so ist \(k’’ = k \bmod (\ell \bmod k) = k - (\ell \bmod k) \le \frac {k}{2}\).
In jedem Fall gilt \(k’’ \le \frac {k}{2}\) und spätestens nach zwei rekursiven Aufrufen hat sich die kleinere Zahl halbiert. Die Rekursionstiefe ist daher \(\O (\log k) = \O (n)\) und die Laufzeit \(\weakO (n^2)\).
Invertieren modulo \(m\): Gegeben seien \(m, k \in \natural \) mit \(m \ge 2\) (mit \(n\) der Bitlänge der kleineren Zahl). Gesucht ist das multiplikative Inverse von \(k\) modulo \(m\).
Berechne zunächst \((a, b, t) := \code {erw\_ggT}(k, m)\).
Ist \(t \not = 1\), dann ist \(k\) nicht invertierbar modulo \(m\).
Ist \(t = 1\), dann gilt \(ak + bm = 1 \iff ak \equiv _m 1\), d. h. \(a \bmod m \in \ZmZ \) ist das gesuchte multiplikative Inverse von \(k\) mod \(m\).
Laufzeit: \(\weakO (n^2)\)
Exponentiation
Problem: Gegeben sei ein Monoid \(M\) (Gruppe bis auf Existenz von Inversen), ein Element \(a \in M\) und \(m \in \natural \). Gesucht ist \(a^m \in M\).
schnelle Exponentiation:
Der Algorithmus zur schnellen Exponentiation berechnet \(e = a^m\) wie folgt.
Es werden \(\O (\log m)\) Monoid-Operationen durchgeführt, weil \(m\) in jedem Durchlauf mindestens halbiert wird.
schnelle modulare Exponentiation: Ist \(M = (\ZkZ , \cdot )\), dann wird bei jeder Operation modulo \(k\) gerechnet. Sei \(n\) die größere der Bitlängen von \(k\) und \(m\). Dann kostet
Multiplizieren und Modulo-Operationen jeweils \(\weakO (n)\), d. h. die Laufzeit des obigen Algorithmus ist \(\weakO (n^2)\).
Optimierung mittels Additionsketten: Am Beispiel \(a^{15}\) erkennt man, dass man auch mit weniger Operationen auskommen kann. Obiger Algorithmus berechnet \(a, a^2, a^3, a^4, a^7, a^8, a^{15}\),
d. h. er benötigt sechs Multiplikationen. Wenn man allerdings \(a, a^2, a^3, a^6, a^{12}, a^{15}\) berechnet, so benötigt man bloß fünf Multiplikationen.
Additionskette: Eine Additionskette \((m_0, \dotsc , m_\ell )\) ist eine Kette mit \(m_0, \dotsc , m_\ell \in \natural \), \(m_0 := 1\) und \(m_i\) ist eine
Summe von zwei beliebigen Werten mit Index kleiner als \(i\) (\(i = 1, \dotsc , \ell \)).
Die zu obigen Multiplikationsfolgen entsprechenden Additionsketten sind \((1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 15)\) und \((1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 15)\). Am wenigsten Monoid-Operationen benötigt man, wenn man eine
kürzeste Additionskette verwendet. Das Berechnen einer Additionskette an sich kostet zwar keine Monoid-Operationen, allerdings müssen bei der Exponentiation mit eine optimalen Additionskette i. A.
alle bisher aufgetretenen Potenzen im Speicher gehalten werden. Bei den zum obigem Algorithmus gehörigen Additionsketten werden hingegen immer nur die letzten zwei Potenzen benötigt. Außerdem kann man
mit der optimalen Additionskette nicht mehr als die Hälfte an Operationen gegenüber obigem Algorithmus einsparen. Am meisten spart man bei Zweierpotenzen minus \(1\), während bei
Zweierpotenzen obiger Algorithmus optimal ist.
Invertieren durch Exponentiation: Ist \(G\) eine endliche Gruppe und \(g \in G\), so kann man \(g^{-1}\) durch \(g^{-1} = g^{|G| - 1}\) berechnen. Für \(G = ((\ZnZ )^\ast , \cdot )\) ist
z. B. \(a^{-1} \equiv _n a^{\varphi (n) - 1}\). Damit kann man ebenfalls in Zeit \(\weakO (n^2)\) invertieren, allerdings muss \(\varphi (n)\) bekannt sein.
Laufzeit von Miller-Rabin: Ist \(n\) die zu testende Zahl (mit \(\log n\) Stellen), so ist die Laufzeit des MR-Tests \(\weakO (\log ^2 n)\) pro
Durchlauf.
Laufzeit von RSA: Ist \(n\) das RSA-Modul, so ist die Laufzeit einer Ver-/Entschlüsselung von RSA \(\weakO (\log ^2 n)\) (\(\weakO (\log n)\) bei Verschlüsselung mit kleinem \(e\)). Durch
Speicherung der Primfaktoren \(p\) und \(q\) kann die Entschlüsselung doppelt so schnell erfolgen.